in case you are wondering: V. Herbert et al., “Are Colon Bacteria a Major Source of Cobalamin Analogues in Human Tissues?,” Transactions of the Association of American Physicians 97 (1984): 161.
flooded with diet books: This section is adapted from a passage in chapter 8 of my first book, Not So Different: Finding Human Nature in Animals(New York: Columbia University Press, 2016).
people who are active athletes: Amy Luke et al., “Energy Expenditure Does Not Predict Weight Change in Either Nigerian or African American Women,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89, no. 1 (2009): 169–76.
3. Junk in the Genome
Scientists estimate: David Torrents et al., “A Genome-Wide Survey of Human Pseudogenes,” Genome Research 13, no. 12 (2003): 2559–67.
in an ancestor common to humans: Tomas Ganz, “Defensins: Antimicrobial Peptides of Innate Immunity,” Nature Reviews Immunology 3, no. 9 (2003): 710–20.
Once upon a time: Jan Ole Kriegs et al., “Evolutionary History of 7SL RNA-Derived SINEs in Supraprimates,” Trends in Genetics 23, no. 4 (2007): 158–61.
4. Homo sterilis
As of 2014: All statistics from Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook 2014–15 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2015).
In chimps, the average spacing: Biruté M. F. Galdikas and James W. Wood, “Birth Spacing Patterns in Humans and Apes,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83, no. 2 (1990): 185–91.
One study found an orca: Lauren J. N. Brent et al., “Ecological Knowledge, Leadership, and the Evolution of Menopause in Killer Whales,” Current Biology 25, no. 6 (2015): 746–50.
If grandparental investment is so great: This is somewhat disputed because there have been some reports of reproductive senescence in captive populations of primates and some other mammals; however, these isolated cases do not approach the universal and carefully timed nature of human menopause.
5. Why God Invented Doctors
Indeed, many histories of sanitariums: Norman Routh Phillips, “Goitre and the Psychoses,” British Journal of Psychiatry 65, no. 271 (1919): 235–48.
neutralize the invaders: This is how vaccines work; when you’re given an injection of a dead or damaged virus, your immune system learns how to fight it. If all goes well, the immune system is shaped so that the next time it sees that antigen—like when you are exposed to the actual virulent virus—it mounts a response that is hundreds of times faster and more vigorous than it would have been if it were seeing it for the first time.
Prevalence of both food and respiratory allergies: Susan Prescott and Katrina J. Allen, “Food Allergy: Riding the Second Wave of the Allergy Epidemic,” Pediatric Allergy and Immunology 22, no. 2 (2011): 155–60.
6. A Species of Suckers
rate the quality and relevance of each study: Charles G. Lord, Lee Ross, and Mark R. Lepper, “Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The Effects of Prior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37, no. 11 (1979): 2098.
two political hot topics: Charles S. Taber and Milton Lodge, “Motivated Skepticism in the Evaluation of Political Beliefs,” American Journal of Political Science 50, no. 3 (2006): 755–69.
Another manifestation of confirmation bias: Bertram R. Forer, “The Fallacy of Personal Validation: A Classroom Demonstration of Gullibility,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 44, no. 1 (1949): 118.
This overremembering: Steven M. Southwick et al., “Consistency of Memory for Combat-Related Traumatic Events in Veterans of Operation Desert Storm,” American Journal of Psychiatry 154, no. 2 (1997): 173–77.
Researchers led by my colleague: Deryn Strange and Melanie K. T. Takarangi, “False Memories for Missing Aspects of Traumatic Events,” Acta Psychologica 141, no. 3 (2012): 322–26.
When you’re in the middle of a losing streak: The only time when this may not hold in a casino is in blackjack, when there are a finite and knowable number of face cards. A long stretch of non–face cards does indeed mean that the remainder of the shoe will be enriched with face cards. Of course, this could help the dealer as often as it does the gamblers, and there is no guarantee that the deficit will be made up before the cut card is reached and the last hand is called for that shoe. Nevertheless, a skilled card counter can give himself a slight advantage over the house that might reap financial benefits over a long day of card playing. However, casinos have ways of spotting card counters and will place the cut card very shallowly in the shoe to neutralize them. And if that doesn’t work, the manager will show the card counter the door. The house always wins.
Dr. Laurie Santos: M. Keith Chen, Venkat Lakshminarayanan, and Laurie R. Santos, “How Basic Are Behavioral Biases? Evidence from Capuchin Monkey Trading Behavior,” Journal of Political Economy 114, no. 3 (2006): 517–37.
Epilogue: The Future of Humanity
This notion is driving: Ray Kurzweil and Terry Grossman, Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever (Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2004).
Index
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z
Page numbers in italics refer to figures.
A
abortion, spontaneous, 102–4
Achilles tendon, 24–25
ACL (anterior cruciate ligament), 22–24, 22, 28
adaptation, 31
adolescents, risk-taking, 187–91
aging, 211, 214
agriculture, 46
AIDS, 74
alien life, 203–7, 208, 209, 210
allergies, 11, 140–46
alpha-linolenic acid, 51–52
Alu, 87–89, 90
American Autoimmune-Related Diseases Association, 138
American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 102
amino acids, 48–52
anastomoses, 150–52, 151
anchoring bias, 180–81
anecdotes, 184–87
anemia, 44, 55, 56, 57, 58
animals, nonhuman
autoimmune diseases, 139
birth in, 112
breathing in, 19
in captivity, 61
economic transactions by, 183
genes in, 68
infant mortality rate, 106
iron, 58–59
obesity, 60–62
starvation, 61–62
technology use by, 199
vegetarian, 44
vestigial structures in, 31–32
See also specific animals
ankles, 24–25, 28–29, 29
anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), 22–24, 22, 28
antibodies, 128, 132–33, 141–42
antigens, 140
AO-4, 32–33, 32
apes, 12, 21
apoptosis, 136
arms, bones in, 28, 31
Attenborough, David, 200
Australopithecus afarensis, 107
autoimmune disease. See disease, autoimmune
B
B cells, 136
B vitamins, 37–38, 43, 44–47
babies, 20
fever, 143–44
helplessness of, 107–8
infant mortality rate, 104–6
infection, 143
backbones, 25–27
bacteria, vitamin production and, 44–45
Barnum, P. T., 167
base pairs, 66
behavioral economics, 163–64
beriberi, 45–47
bias
anchoring bias, 180–81
cognitive bias, 163–67
confirmation bias, 183, 186
sunk-costs fallacy, 177–79, 183
bionic implants, 212–13
bipedalism, 21, 22
birds, 4, 18–19
birth. See childbirth
birth spacing, 108–10
birthrates, 201–2
blood
anastomoses, 150–52, 151
anemia, 44, 55, 56, 57, 58
hemoglobin, 55, 76
–81
iron deficiency, 55
red blood cells, 55
sickle cell disease, 40, 76–81
transposed vessels, 150
blowholes, 19
bluefin tuna, 97–98
bones
in ankle, 28–29, 29
in arm, 28, 31
coccyx, 30
extra, 27–31
in leg, 31
osteoporosis, 41, 54
rickets, 41–44, 42
skull, 8–13, 11, 30
in wrist, 28
brain, 163–67
ability to self-train, 158
anecdotes’ influence on, 184–87
capabilities of, 157
cognitive abilities, 12, 192–95
decision-making, 171–77
evolution, 192–95
facial recognition, 160
gestation time, 106
heuristics, 164, 176
language acquisition, 158
laziness, 198
limitations of, 158
memory, 167–71
numbers, 186–87
optical illusions, 159–63, 161
protection of, 17
sensation of motion, 160–63
size of, 13
use of, 65
valuation, 171–77, 179–84
Braun, Eva, 195
breathing, 17–19
breech birth, 111–12
bystander memory, 168–69
C
calcium, 36, 54, 57
cancer, 70, 129, 152–56
carcinogens, 70
cardiopulmonary system, 17
cardiovascular diseases, 146–52
anastomosis, 150–52, 151
septal defect, 146–49, 147
transposed vessels, 150
cardiovascular system, 129
casinos, 173–77
cats, vision of, 4
caution, 187
cell death, 136
cell division, 68, 69
cancer and, 155–56
copying errors and, 70–71
cell membranes, 51–52
cells, 66
B cells, 136
cancer, 153–56
damage to, 211
iron, 55
need for minerals, 53
stem cells, 211–12
T cells, 84–85
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 55
cephalopods, retina of, 6–7, 7
cesarean section, 105, 111–12
cetaceans, breathing in, 19
Cheney, Dick, 212
childbirth, 97
breech births, 111–12
C-sections, 105, 111–12
head size, 106, 107
infant mortality rate, 104–6
in nonhuman animals, 112
risks to mother, 110–12
children, 55, 108–10
See also infants
choking, 19
chromosomes, 68
cilia, 9, 10, 11
Clarke, Arthur C., 210
climate change, 207, 208
clonal deletion, 142
cobalamin, 44
coccyx, 30
cognitive abilities, 12, 192–95
cognitive bias, 163–67
colds, 9, 11, 11, 127
collaboration, 109, 122, 124, 192, 193, 194–95
color vision, 90–92
colorblindness, 4–5
communication, 193
competition, 122, 194–95
conception, 101–3
confirmation bias, 183, 186
cooperation, 109, 122, 124, 192, 193, 194–95
costly signals, 189
cranial capacity, 193
criminal justice, 167–69
CRISPR, 213, 214
C-section, 105, 111–12
cultural evolution, 199
currency, 182
cystic fibrosis, 40
D
data, vs. anecdotes, 185–86
Dawkins, Richard, 89
death, delaying, 210–15
decision-making, 163–67, 171–79
Degas, Edgar, 163
depression, 130, 137
development, genes and, 149
developmental implosion, 207
diabetes, type 2, 63
diarrheal diseases, 128
diet, 35–63
amino acids, 48–52
fatty acids, 52
food combinations, 57
iron absorption, 57
meat, 57
minerals, 53–60
obesity, 60–63
poverty, 50–51, 56
prehistoric, 52, 57
variety in, 50, 57, 198
See also food; nutrients; vitamins
disease, 129–39
cancer, 152–56
cardiovascular diseases, 146–52
diabetes, 63
diarrheal diseases, 128
living conditions, 128–29
malaria, 78–81, 79
pandemic, 207–8
transposable elements, 88–89
disease, autoimmune, 129–39
Graves’ disease, 133–35, 134
lupus, 131, 135–38
mental health, 130–31, 134, 137
myasthenia gravis, 131–33
nonhuman animals, 139
number of, 138–139
treatment for, 130, 132, 137–38
disease, genetic, 75–83
caused by dominant mutation, 81–83
genetic testing and counseling, 213
Huntington’s disease, 82–83
number of, 81
persistence of, 82, 83
prevalence of, 83
as recessive, 77–78
sickle cell disease, 76–81
disks, slipped, 25–27, 26
division of labor, 122
DNA
copying errors in, 70–71 (see also xmutations)
copying of, 67
damage to, 70, 71
described, 66–68
jumpy, 86–89, 90
nonfunctional, 65–92
nucleotides, 66
retroviruses, 87
transposable elements, 86–89
viral, 84–86
See also genes; genome
dogs, 9–10, 10n
dolphins, 19, 32–33, 32
dorsal sacrococcygeal muscle, 30
Drake, Frank, 204
Drake equation, 204–5
E
economic psychology, 183
economic transactions, among nonhuman animals, 183
economics, behavioral, 163–64
ectopic pregnancies, 112–17
eggs, 71, 85, 112–13
embryonic development, genes for, 33
ENCODE, 70n
energy, 49
environmental mismatch, 63, 198–99
evolution, 74
constraints on, 18
continuation of, 31, 201
end of, 200
limits of, 20
selfishness and, 209
undoing, 33
evolution, cultural, 199
exercise, obesity and, 62
extinction, 31, 58, 207–8
extracellular matrix (ECM), 38
eyes, 2–8
blind spot, 8
cephalopods, 6–7, 7
flicker fusion threshold, 161–62
functional problems, 2–5
nearsightedness, 2–3
optic disk, 8
optic nerve, 8
optical illusions, 159–63, 161
photoreceptors, 4, 5, 7
physical design, 5–8
retinas, 4, 5–7, 7, 37, 90–91, 161–62
See also vision
eyesight. See vision
eyewitness testimony, 168–69
F
face, 12, 160
famine, 51, 123–24
farsightedness, 3
fatty acids, 52
fema
le reproductive system, 115, 119–20
females
menopause, 117–24
puberty, 97
reproductive system of, 115, 119–20
risks of pregnancy and childbirth to, 110–17
sexual selection, 190–91
Fermi, Enrico, 203, 204, 205, 206
fertility, postpartum delays in, 108–9
fevers, in infants, 143–44
fingers, extra, 33
fish
backbones of, 25–26
circulatory system of, 15
RLN in, 15
as source of iron, 58
fitness displays, 189
flicker fusion threshold, 161–62
flu, 127
follicles, 119–20
food
availability of, and obesity, 62–63
removal of nutrients from, 46
See also diet; minerals; nutrients; vitamins
Forer, Bertram, 165
Forer effect, 165–67
future, 215–16
G
Galen (physician), 15
gambling, 172–77
gastroenteritis, 127, 128
genes
duplication of, 91
errors in, 70
functional, 68
GULO gene, 39–41, 72, 73
influence of, 149
7SL, 87–88
See also DNA; genome
genetic disease. See disease, genetic
genetic testing and counseling, 213
genetics, basics of, 66
genome
changes in, 70
copying of, 69
mutations in, 39–41
retroviruses, 84–86
sequencing of, 69
See also DNA; genes
gestation time, 106
global warming, 207, 208
grandmother hypothesis, 121–23
Graves’ disease, 133–35, 134
GULO gene, 39–41, 72, 73
H
handicap principle, 189–91
head. See face; skull
heart
anastomosis, 150–52, 151
artificial, 212
cardiovascular diseases, 146–52
during evolution, 15–16
Human Errors Page 23
