52. Luciano Perena Vicente, La Universidad de Salamanca, forja del pensamiento politico espanol en el siglo XVI (Salamanca, 1954). For a general survey of Spanish political thinking in this period, see J. A. Fernandez-Santamaria, The State, War and Peace. Spanish Political Thought in the Renaissance, 1516-1559 (Cambridge, 1977), and for an exposition of ideas and practice in Spain's American possessions, Colin M. MacLachlan, Spain's Empire in the New World. The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social Change (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1988).
53. See Gongora, Studies, pp. 68-79. Also Richard M. Morse, `Towards a Theory of Spanish American Government', Journal of the History of Ideas, 15 (1954), pp. 71-93; `The Heritage of Latin America' in Hartz, The Founding of New Societies, pp. 123-77; and his ideas as reformulated in the context of the development of western civilization, in Richard M. Morse, El espejo de Prospero. Un estudio de la dialectica del Nuevo Mundo (Mexico City, 1982), pp. 66ff.
54. For the formula as part of Basque law, Bartolome Clavero, Derecho de los reinos (Seville, 1977), pp. 125-30. See also Perez Prendes, La monarquia indiana, pp. 167-8, and Recopilacion de Indias, lib. II, tit. 1, ley 22.
55. Above, p. 4.
56. Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain, pp. 132-3.
57. For the rebellion and its justification, Guillermo Lehmann Villena, Las ideas juridicas- politicas en la rebelidn de Gonzalo Pizarro (Valladolid, 1977); Gongora, Studies, pp. 27-30 and 75. For La Gasca, Teodoro Hampe Martinez, Don Pedro de la Gasca. Su obra politica en Espana y America (Lima, 1989)
58. Andrews, Colonial Period, 1, p. 86.
59. Craven, Dissolution of the Virginia Company, ch. 3; and see the documents in chapter 1 of Warren M. Billings, The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century. A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1975), for the beginnings of government in Virginia.
60. Michael Kammen, Deputyes and Libertyes. The Origins of Representative Government in Colonial America (New York, 1969), p. 17.
61. Langdon, `The Franchise and Political Democracy', p. 515.
62. Ibid., p. 514.
63. Kammen, Deputyes and Libertyes, p. 54; and see the table of colonies (pp. 11-2) with the date of their first assemblies.
64. Ibid., p. 19.
65. Michael Kammen, Colonial New York. A History (New York, 1975), p. 102.
66. Robert C. Ritchie, The Duke's Province. A Study of New York Politics and Society, 1664-1691 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1977), pp. 159 and 166.
67. Jack P. Greene, Peripheries and Center. Constitutional Development in the Extended Polities of the British Empire and the United States, 1607-1788 (Athens, GA, London, 1986), pp. 23-4; John Phillip Reid, In a Defiant Stance (University Park, PA, London, 1977), p. 12.
68. Leonard Woods Labaree, Royal Government in America (New Haven, 1930), pp. 32-3.
69. For the powers of governors, see ibid., especially ch. 3.
70. Ibid., p. 102.
71. Cited by Bernard Bailyn, The Origins of American Politics (New York, 1970), p. 113. Labaree's comparison of Osborn's instructions with those of Governor Clinton in 1741 in fact shows that 67 of the original 97 articles were repeated verbatim, four showed changes in phraseology, sixteen were modified in content, ten were omitted, and twelve new paragraphs were added (Royal Government, p. 64). For British royal instructions see Leonard Woods Labaree (ed.), Royal Instructions to British Colonial Governors, 1670-1776 (New York, 1935). Instructions, both standard and secret, for the viceroys of Habsburg Spanish America may be found in Lewis Hanke (ed.), Los virreyes espanoles en America durante el gobierno de la Casa de Austria (BAE, vols 233-7, Madrid, 1967-8 for Mexico, and vols 280-5 for Peru, Madrid, 1978-80).
72. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 83.
73. Ibid., pp. 85-9.
74. Patricia U. Bonomi, The Lord Cornbury Scandal. The Politics of Reputation in British America (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1988).
75. Ibid., pp. 92-7.
76. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 43.
77. Richard R. Johnson, Adjustment to Empire. The New England Colonies 1675-1715 (Leicester, 1981), p. 332.
78. Cited in Alan Tully Forming American Politics. Ideals, Interests and Institutions in Colonial New York and Pennsylvania (Baltimore and London, 1994), p. 95.
79. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 126; Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 120-1. The three-year rule was introduced in 1629.
80. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 121.
81. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 38. The Jamaican-born Moore was governor of New York 1765-9.
82. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, doc. 350; John Leddy Phelan, The Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century (Madison, WI, Milwaukee, WI, London, 1967), pp. 151-3.
83. Jonathan Israel, Race, Class and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610-1670 (Oxford, 1975), ch. 5.
84. C. H. Haring, The Spanish Empire in America (New York, 1947), pp. 148-57. Haring's survey remains a useful guide to governmental organization and practice in colonial America.
85. Labaree, Royal Government, ch. 5; Jack P. Greene, Negotiated Authorities. Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History (Charlottesville, VA and London, 1994), p. 173.
86. Ismael Sanchez-Bella, La organizacion financiera de las Indias. Siglo XVI (Seville, 1968), pp. 21-3.
87. Ibid., pp. 52-3; Robert Sidney Smith, `Sales Taxes in New Spain, 1575-1770', HAHR, 28 (1948), pp. 2-37.
88. For the working of this system, see Herbert S. Klein, The American Finances of the Spanish Empire. Royal Income and Expenditures in Colonial Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, 1680-1809 (Albuquerque, NM, 1998).
89. Anthony McFarlane, The British in the Americas, 1480-1815 (London and New York, 1994), pp. 207-8.
90. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 271.
91. Jack P. Greene, The Quest for Power. The Lower Houses of Assembly in the Southern Royal Colonies, 1689-1776 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1963), p. 3.
92. Cited in David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed. Four British Folkways in America (New York and Oxford, 1989), p. 407.
93. Labaree, Royal Government, pp. 170 and 274-5; Greene, The Quest for Power, part 2.
94. Bernard Bailyn, `Politics and Social Structure in Virginia', in Stanley N. Katz and John M. Murrin (eds), Colonial America. Essays in Politics and Social Development (New York, 1983), pp. 207-30, at pp. 210-15.
95. Billings, The Old Dominion, p. 68.
96. Warren M. Billings, `The Growth of Political Institutions in Virginia, 1634-1676', WMQ, 3rd set., 31 (1974), pp. 225-42; Billings, The Old Dominion, p. 70.
97. Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 190.
98. Ibid., pp. 195-7.
99. Billings, `The Growth of Political Institutions', p. 232.
100. For legal pluralism in colonial societies, see Lauren Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures. Legal Regimes in World History, 1400-1900 (Cambridge, 2002), and especially ch. 2, which discusses legal regimes in the Atlantic world. See also for varieties of jurisdiction in Renaissance Spain, Richard L. Kagan, Lawsuits and Litigants in Castile, 1500-1700 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1981), pp. 22-32. For the English Atlantic world, see especially William M. Offutt, `The Atlantic Rules: the Legalistic Turn in Colonial British America', in Mancke and Shammas (eds), The Creation of the Atlantic World, pp. 160-81, and Tomlins and Mann (eds), The Many Legalities of Early America, together with the review of this important collection of essays by Jack P. Greene, "By Their Laws Shall Ye Know Them": Law and Identity in Colonial British America', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 33 (2002), pp. 247-60.
101. Offutt, `The Atlantic Rules', p. 161.
102. See Warren M. Billings, `The Transfer of English Law to Virginia, 1606-1650', in Andrews et al. (eds), The Westward Enterprise, ch. 11.
103. Offutt, `The Atlantic Rules', p. 166.
104. Ibid., p. 178.
105. See the essays by John M. Murrin and G. B. Warden in David D. Hall, John M. Murrin and Thad W. Tate (eds), Saints and Revolutionaries. Essays in Early American History (New York and London, 1984). Also P
eter Charles Hoffer, Law and People in Colonial America (Baltimore and London, 1992), pp. 87-9.
106. `Shipwrecked Spaniards 1639. Grievances against Bermudans', trans. from the Spanish by L. D. Gurrin, The Bermuda Historical Quarterly, 18 (1961), pp. 13-28, at pp. 27-8.
107. Below, pp. 228-9.
108. See Peter Marzahl, Town in the Empire. Government, Politics and Society in SeventeenthCentury Popayan (Austin, TX, 1978).
109. See the description of Easthampton in John Putnam Demos, Entertaining Satan. Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England (New York and Oxford, 1982), pp. 220-33. The history of East Hampton, as it now styles itself, is explored in T. H. Breen, Imagining the Past. East Hampton Histories (Reading, MA, 1989).
110. See Demos, A Little Commonwealth, pp. 7-8; Lockridge, A New England Town, ch. 3.
111. Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible. Social Change, Political Consciousness and the Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1979), pp. 31-2.
112. Demos, Entertaining Satan, p. 228.
113. Langdon, `The Franchise and Political Democracy', pp. 522-5.
114. Winthrop, journal, p. 145.
115. Dunn, Puritans and Yankees, p. 29; Howard Millar Chapin, Roger Williams and the King's Colors (Providence, RI, 1928).
116. Enrique Florescano, La bandera mexicana. Breve historia de sit formation y simbolismo (Mexico City, 1998).
117. Cited in Bliss, Revolution and Empire, p. 42 (spelling modernized).
118. Dunn, Puritans and Yankees, p. 37.
119. Below, p. 229.
120. Craven, The Southern Colonies, ch. 7; Bliss, Revolution and Empire, pp. 51-2 and ch. 4; and, for a general survey of the Civil War period, see Carla Gardina Pestana, The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution, 1640-1661 (Cambridge, MA, 2004).
121. Mary Beth Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers. Gendered Power and the Forming of American Society (New York, 1997), p. 282.
122. Dunn, Puritans and Yankees, p. 37.
123. Ibid., p. 42; Bremer, John Winthrop, pp. 325-7.
124. Bliss, Revolution and Empire, p. 46.
125. Ibid., pp. 60-i.
126. Andrews, The Colonial Period, vol. 4, pp. 54-5.
127. J. M. Sosin, English America and the Restoration Monarchy of Charles II (Lincoln, NE, and London, 1980), pp. 39-41. This unwieldy structure was replaced, after Clarendon's fall in 1667, by a Privy Council Committee for Trade and Plantations. A further reorganization occurred in 1672, with the establishment of a Council of Trade and Foreign Plantations.
128. OHBE, 1, p. 452.
129. F. R. Harris, The Life of Edward Mountague, K.G., First Earl of Sandwich, 1625-1672, 2 vols (London, 1912), Appendix K (spelling modernized).
130. See Johnson, Adjustment to Empire; Bernard Bailyn, The New England Merchants in the Seventeenth Century (1955; edn New York, 1964).
131. Stephen Saunders Webb, The Governors-General. The English Army and the Definition of the Empire, 1569-1681 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1979), p. 194.
132. Cited by Greene, Peripheries and Center, pp. 39-40.
133. For the idea of `garrison government', as expounded by Stephen Saunders Webb, see his Governors-General, and 1676. The End of American Independence (New York, 1984). For a critique, see Richard R. Johnson, `The Imperial Webb', and Webb's reply, in WMQ, 3rd ser., 43 (1986), pp. 408-59.
134. Laharec, Royal Government, p. 275.
135. W. A. Speck, `The International and Imperial Context', in Greene and Pole, Colonial British America, p. 390.
136. Michael Garibaldi Hall, Edward Randolph and the American Colonies, 1676-1703 (1960; New York, 1969), p. 22. For Randolph see also Dunn, Puritans and Yankees, pp. 212-28.
137. For the career of Andros, Mary Lou Lustig, The Imperial Executive in America. Sir Edmund Andros, 1637-1714 (Madison, NJ, 2002).
138. See Viola Florence Barnes, The Dominion of New England (New Haven, 1923).
139. Alison Gilbert Olson, Anglo-American Politics, 1660-1775 (New York and Oxford, 1973), p. 66.
140. Ritchie, The Duke's Province, pp. 168-73; Michael Kammen, Colonial New York. A History (New York, 1975), p. 102.
141. Barnes, Dominion of New England, p. 87.
142. Cited by Lustig, The Imperial Executive, p. 151.
143. For 1688 see David S. Lovejoy, The Glorious Revolution in America (New York, 1972); J. M. Sosin, English America and the Revolution of 1688 (Lincoln, NE, and London, 1982). Also Richard Dunn, `The Glorious Revolution and America', OHBE, 1, ch. 20.
144. Hall, Edward Randolph, p. 32.
Chapter 6. The Ordering of Society
1. Cited by Perry Miller, `Errand into the Wilderness', in In Search of Early America. The William and Mary Quarterly 1943-1993 (Richmond, VA, 1993), p. 3. For the date and place of the sermon's delivery, see Bremer, John Winthrop, pp. 431-2 (spelling modernized).
2. Cited by Salas, Las armas de la conquista, pp. 140-1, from the Relation del sitio de Cuzco.
3. Cited in Perry Miller, The New England Mind in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1939), p. 428.
4. Cited in Guillaume Boccara and Sylvia Galindo (eds), Logica mestiza en America (Temuco, Chile, 1999), p. 61.
5. See Dietrich Gerhard, Old Europe. A Study of Continuity, 1000-1800 (New York, 1981).
6. See Aldo Stella, La rivoluzione contadina del 1525 e 1'Utopia di Michael Gaismayr (Padua, 1975).
7. For a comprehensive study of these religious movements see G. H. Williams, The Radical Reformation (London, 1962).
8. Below, p. 185.
9. Durand, La trans formacion social del conquistador, vol. 1, ch. 3 ('El valer mas').
10. James Lockhart, The Men of Cajamarca. A Social and Economic History of the First Conquerors of Peru (Austin, TX and London 1972), p. 32.
11. Baltasar Dorantes de Carranza, Sumaria relacion de las cosas de la Nueva Espana (1604; ed. Ernesto de la Torre Villar, Mexico City, 1987), p. 201.
12. Thomas N. Ingersoll, `The Fear of Levelling in New England', in Carla Gardina Pestana and Sharon V Salinger (eds), Inequality in Early America (Hanover, NH, and London, 1999), pp. 46-66.
13. Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers, ch. 8.
14. OHBE, 1, p. 203.
15. Winthrop, journal, p. 612 (spelling modernized).
16. Barry Levy, Quakers and the American Family (New York and Oxford, 1988), pp. 76-9; Gary Nash, Quakers and Politics in Pennsylvania, 1681-1726 (Princeton, 1968), p. 43.
17. Above, pp. 44 and 55.
18. Bernard Bailyn, Education in the Forming of American Society (New York and London, 1960), p. 28.
19. Above, p. 55.
20. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, dot. 112 (royal cedula to Viceroy Mendoza, 23 August 1538).
21. The voluminous correspondence collected in Rocio Sanchez Rubio and Isabel Teston Nunez, El kilo que une: Las relaciones epistolares en el viejo y el nuevo mundo, siglos XVI-XVIII (Merida, 1999), derives from bigamy prosecutions. For an individual case in sixteenthcentury Peru, see Alexandra Parma Cook and Noble David Cook, Good Faith and Truthful Ignorance. A Case of Transatlantic Bigamy (Durham, NC, and London, 1991).
22. See in particular Demos, A Little Commonwealth, part 2, and Philip J. Greven, Four Generations. Population, Land and Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1970), part 1.
23. Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers, pp. 83-9; Demos, A Little Commonwealth, pp. 84-7.
24. Tate and Ammerman (eds), The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century, p. 127; Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 206.
25. Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 216.
26. Tate and Ammerman (eds), The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century, p. 173.
27. Morner, Race Mixture, p. 55.
28. Above, p. 82.
29. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 252-5. I am grateful to Professor Philip Morgan for his advice on this point.
30. Foster, Culture and Conquest, pp. 122-3; CHLA, vol. 2, p. 290. It may not, however, always h
ave worked to this effect. In Santiago de Chile in the seventeenth century, for instance, godparents seem to have been chosen from within the same social or racial milieu as that of the parents. See Jean-Paul Zuniga, Espagnols d'outre-mer. Emigration, metissage et reproduction sociale a Santiago du Chili, au 17" siecle (Paris, 2002), pp. 287-301. There is a need for a systematic study of the workings and importance of compadrazgo in Spanish-American societies.
31. Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 218.
32. Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers, pp. 111-12, and 145; and see Carole Shammas, 'Anglo-American Household Government in Comparative Perspective', WMQ, 3rd ser., 52 (1995), pp. 104-44, and the debate that follows it. See also the subsequent book by Carole Shammas, A History of Household Government in America (Charlottesville, VA and London, 2002).
33. Siete Partidas, partida 4, titulos 17 and 18; Shammas, 'Anglo-American Household Government', p. 137; Patricia Seed, To Love, Honor, and Obey in Colonial Mexico (Stanford, CA, 1988), p. 235.
34. James Casey, Early Modern Spain. A Social History (London and New York, 1999), pp. 28-9.
35. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, ed. Edwin Carman (2 vols, 6th edn, London, 1950), vol. 2, pp. 84-5 (Book 4, ch. 7, part 2).
36. Jose E de la Pelia, Oligarquia y propiedad en Nueva Espana 1550-1624 (Mexico City, 1983), p. 220.
37. Magnus Miirner, `Economic Factors and Stratification in Colonial Spanish America with Special Regard to Elites', HAHR, 63 (1983), pp. 335-69. For Leon, D. A. Brading, Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajio. Leon 1700-1860 (Cambridge, 1978), pp. 1 18-19.
38. Louisa Schell Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1590-1660. Silver, State and Society (Durham, NC, and London, 1991), pp. 231-2.
39. Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 230-1.
40. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor. Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (New York, 1982), pp. 5-6; Fischer, Albion's Seed, pp. 380-1; and for important new light on the prevalence of entail in Virginia, see Holly Brewer, `Entailing Aristocracy in Colonial Virginia: "Ancient Feudal Restraints" and Revolutionary Reform', WMQ., 3rd set., 54 (1997), pp. 307-46.
41. Louis B. Wright, The First Gentlemen of Virginia. Intellectual Qualities of the Early Colonial Ruling Class (San Marino, CA, 1940), p. 57.
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