42. Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers, pp. 144-7; Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 230-1.
43. Patricia Seed, `American Law, Hispanic Traces: Some Contemporary Entanglements of Community Property', WMQ, 3rd ser., 52 (1995), pp. 157-62. For the age of majority, Lockhart, Spanish Peru, pp. 164-5.
44. Luis Martin, Daughters of the Conquistadores. Women of the Viceroyalty of Peru (Dallas, TX, 1983), pp. 46 and 50; Lockhart, Spanish Peru, ch. 9.
45. Shammas, 'Anglo-American Household Government', p. 111.
46. Seed, To Love, Honor, and Obey, pp. 34-40; Casey, Early Modern Spain, pp. 208-9.
47. Martin Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage in England, 1570-1640 (Cambridge, 1987), p. 132.
48. Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers, p. 64; Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 211.
49. Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 210.
50. Fischer, Alhion's Seed, pp. 88-91.
51. Seed, To Love, Honor, and Obey, pp. 63 and 266-7; Z6higa, Espagnols d'outre-mer, pp. 177-86. For the eighteenth century see Ann Twinam, Public Lives, Private Secrets. Gender, Honor, Sexuality, and Illegitimacy in Colonial Spanish America (Stanford, CA, 1999).
52. Ann Twinam, `Honor, Sexuality and Illegitimacy in Colonial Spanish America', in Asuncion Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage in Colonial Latin America (Lincoln, NE, and London, 1989), pp. 136 and 125.
53. Seed, To Love, Honor, and Obey, pp. 69-74.
54. Ibid., p. 80.
55. Thomas Calvo, `The Warmth of the Hearth: Seventeenth-Century Guadalajara Families', in Lavrin, Sexuality and Marriage, p. 299.
56. Susan M. Socolow, `Acceptable Partners: Marriage Choice in Colonial Argentina, 1778-1810', in Lavrin, Sexuality and Marriage, pp. 210-13; Seed, To Love, Honor, and Obey, pp. 200-4.
57. Lavrin, Sexuality and Marriage, p. 6.
58. Seed, 'American Law, Hispanic Traces', p. 159.
59. De la Pena, Oligarquia y propiedad, pp. 191-3.
60. Jack P. Greene, Imperatives, Behaviors and Identities. Essays in Early American Cultural History (Charlottesville, VA and London, 1992), pp. 191-3.
61. Above, p. 8.
62. Otte, Cartas privadas, no. 127.
63. Description del virreinato del Peru, ed. Boleslao Lewin (Rosario, 1958), p. 39.
64. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, doc. 145.
65. Himmerich y Valencia, Encomenderos of New Spain, p. 57.
66. Norman H. Dawes, `Titles as Symbols of Prestige in Seventeenth-Century New England', WMQ, 3rd set., 6 (1949), pp. 69-83.
67. Cotton Mather, A Christian at his Calling (Boston, 1701), p. 42.
68. Dawes, `Titles as Symbols', p. 78; Michael Craton, `Reluctant Creoles. The Planters' World in the British West Indies', in Bailyn and Morgan (eds), Strangers Within the Realm, pp. 314-62, at p. 326; Christen I. Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760-1810 (Albuquerque, NM, 1977), p. 165, citing Humboldt.
69. Cited in Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, p. 161.
70. Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel. A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1957), p. 35. For Berkeley, see Warren M. Billings, Sir William Berkeley and the Forging of Colonial Virginia (Baton Rouge, LA, 2004).
71. Bacon's rebellion has been the subject of much debate since the publication of Thomas J. Wertenbaker's Torchbearer of the Revolution. The Story of Bacon's Rebellion and its Leader (Princeton, 1940). The arguments of Wertenbaker in favour of Bacon's `democratic' credentials were contested by Wilcomb Washburn in The Governor and the Rebel, which makes the case for Governor Berkeley. More recently, Stephen Saunders Webb has retold the story in the spirit of Wertenbaker in Book 1 of his 1676. See also for the background and motivations of Bacon and his followers Wesley Frank Craven, The Southern Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (Baton Rouge, LA, 1949), ch. 10, which rightly emphasizes the complexity of the story; Bernard Bailyn, `Politics and Social Structure in Virginia', in James Morton Smith, Seventeenth-Century America. Essays in Colonial History (Chapel Hill, NC, 1959), ch. 5; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, ch. 13; Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1996), ch. 5; Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 372-9.
72. Bacon's `manifesto', in Billings, The Old Dominion, p. 278. I have corrected an obvious misprint, substituting `compared' for `composed', and have inserted the word `enter' to make sense of the sentence.
73. Fischer, Albion's Seed, pp. 207-32; Bailyn, `Politics and Social Structure'.
74. Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 151-6.
75. Cited in T. H. Breen, Puritans and Adventurers. Change and Persistence in Early America (New York and Oxford, 1980), p. 132.
76. Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 378.
77. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, p. 283.
78. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, p. 178.
79. Ibid., p. 179.
80. Breen, Puritans and Adventurers, p. 141.
81. Above, p. 104.
82. Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia, p. 228.
83. E. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, p. 329.
84. P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, p. 58.
85. Ibid., pp. 422-3.
86. Ibid., pp. 15-16.
87. See Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, especially pp. 184-5.
88. Breen, Puritans and Adventurers, p. 162.
89. E. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, p. 344.
90. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 98, 131, 162-5; and, for a useful survery of planter society, see Craton, `Reluctant Creoles'.
91. Fischer, Albion's Seed, p. 385.
92. See Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor.
93. Wright, The First Gentlemen of Virginia, p. 60.
94. For social structure in the Indies, see especially Lyle C. McAlister, `Social Structure and Social Change in New Spain', HAHR, 43 (1963), pp. 349-70, and Magnus Morner, `Economic Factors and Stratification in Colonial Spanish America with Special Regard to Elites', HAHR, 63 (1983), pp. 335-69.
95. Below, p. 234.
96. Humboldt, Ensayo politico, II, p. 141 (lib. 2. cap. 7).
97. See under casta in the Diccionario de autoridades (Madrid, 1726; facsimile edn, 3 vols, Real Academia Espanola, Madrid, 1969). Also MOrner, Race Mixture, p. 53.
98. R. Douglas Cope, The Limits of Racial Domination. Plebeian Society in Colonial Mexico City, 1660-1720 (Madison, WI, 1994), p. 24.
99. See the exhibition catalogue, Ilona Katzew (ed.), New World Orders. Casta Painting and Colonial Latin America (Americas Society Art Gallery, New York, 1996), and her comprehensive study, Casta Painting. Images of Race in Eighteenth-Century Mexico (New Haven and London, 2004). For the number of sets so far located, Katzew, Casta Painting, p. 63. The earliest known set dates from 1711 (p. 10).
100. Magnus Morner, `Labour Systems and Patterns of Social Stratification', in Wolfgang Reinhard and Peter Waldmann (eds), Nord and Siid in Amerika: Gegensdtze- Gemeinsamkeiten-Europaischer Hintergrund (Freiburg, 1992), I, pp. 347-63.
101. Twinam, `Honor, Sexuality', in Lavrin, Sexuality and Marriage, pp. 123-4.
102. Carmen Castaneda, Circulos de poder en la Nueva Espana (Mexico City, 1998), pp. 112-14; Bernand, Negros esclavos y libres, pp. 130-1; Maria Elena Martinez, `The Black Blood of New Spain: Limpieza de Sangre, Racial Violence, and Gendered Power in Early Colonial Mexico', WMQ, 3rd set., 61 (2004), pp. 479-520.
103. Castaneda, Clrculos de poder, p. 113.
104. Cited by Katzew, New World Orders, p. 11, from a 1774 treatise by Pedro Alonso O'Crouley
105. Twinam, `Honor, Sexuality and Illegitimacy', p. 125.
106. Cited by Bernard Lavalle, Las promesas ambiguas. Ensayos sobre el criollismo colonial en los Andes (Lima, 1993), p. 47.
107. Cope, Limits of Racial Domination, p. 121.
108. Lavalle, Las promesas ambiguas, p. 47; Katzew, New World Orders, p. 12.
109. Cited by Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black. American Attitudes toward the
Negro 1550-1812 (1968; Baltimore 1969), p. 176.
110. Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, pp. 129-30; Morner, Race Mixture, pp. 60-1.
111. Solange Alberto, Del gachupin al criollo. 0 de como los espanoles de Mexico dejaron de serlo (El Colegio de Mexico, Jornadas, 122, 1992), p. 170, n. 13.
112. Humboldt, Ensayo politico, II, p. 141 (lib. 2, cap. 7).
113. See Israel, Race, Class and Politics, ch. 5.
114. Cope, Limits of Racial Domination, pp. 22-3; Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor, ch. 4.
115. See the graph of seventeenth-century maize prices in Mexico City in Enrique Florescano, Etnia, estado y nation. Ensayo sobre las identidades colectivas en Mexico (Mexico City, 1997), p. 259.
116. Cope, Limits of Racial Domination, ch. 7; Natalia Silva Prada, `Estrategias culturales en el tumulto de 1692 en la ciudad de Mexico: aportes para la reconstruction de la historia de la cultura politica antigua', Historia Mexicana, 209 (2003), pp. 5-63. For a contemporary account, Carlos de Sigiienza y Gongora, 'Alboroto y Motin de Mexico del 8 de junio de 1692', in a selection of his Relaciones historicas (4th edn, Mexico City, 1987), pp. 97-174.
117. Juan A. and Judith E. Villamarin, `The Concept of Nobility in Colonial Santa Fe de Bogota', in Karen Spalding (ed.), Essays in the Political, Economic and Social History of Colonial Latin America (Newark, DE, 1982), pp. 125-53.
118. Marzahl, Town in the Empire, p. 40.
119. De la Pena, Oligarquia y propiedad, pp. 200-6; Ma. Justina Sarabia Viejo, Don Luis de Velasco, virrey de Nueva Espana, 1550-1564 (Seville, 1978), pp. 474-5.
120. Mark A. Burkholder and D. S. Chandler, From Impotence to Authority. The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias, 1687-1808 (Columbia, MO, 1977), p. 2.
121. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 138; De la Pena, Oligarqula y propiedad, p. 195.
122. J. H. Parry, The Sale of Public Office in the Spanish Indies under the Hapsburgs (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1953); Mark A. Burkholder, `Bureaucrats', in Louisa Schell Hoberman and Susan Migden Socolow (eds), Cities and Society in Colonial Latin America (Albuquerque, NM, 1986), ch. 4.
123. Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, p. 55 and table 8; Suarez, Comercio y fraude, p. 124.
124. Hanke, Los virreyes espanoles. Mexico, 5, p. 12.
125. Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, pp. 223-4.
126. Guillermo Lehmann Villena, Los americanos en las ordenes nobiliarias, 2 vols (Madrid, 1947). Also Romano, Conjonctures opposees, p. 188.
127. Stuart B. Schwartz, `New World Nobility: Social Aspirations and Mobility in the Conquest and Colonization of Spanish America', in Miriam Usher Chrisman (ed.), Social Groups and Religious Ideas in the Sixteenth Century (Studies in Medieval Culture, XIII, The Medieval Institute, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, 1978), pp. 23-37.
128. Zuniga, Espagnols d'outre-mer, pp. 305-11.
129. Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia, pp. 86-9.
130. Tully, Forming American Politics, p. 4.
131. For `conquest culture', see Foster, Culture and Conquest.
132. Breen, Puritans and Adventurers, pp. 68-9 and ch. 8.
133. Innes, Labor in a New Land, pp. 17-18; and above, p. 92, for the Pynchons.
134. Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI, 1978). For the second New England generation, Robert Middlekauff, The Mathers. Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596-1728 (London, Oxford, New York, 1971), pp. 97-9.
135. Bailyn, New England Merchants, chs 5 and 6.
136. See, for the mercantile elites of the two viceroyalties, Hoberman, Mexico's Merchant Elite, and Suarez, Desaflos transatlanticos.
137. Sosin, English America, p. 64.
138. Middlekauff, The Mathers, pp. 263-8.
139. Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible. Social Change, Political Consciousness and the Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA and London, 1979), p. 31.
140. Dunn, Puritans and Yankees, pp. 251-57; Sosin, English America and the Revolution of 1688, ch. 6; Nash, Urban Crucible, pp. 38-44; and see above, pp. 151-2.
141. T. H. Breen, The Character of the Good Ruler. Puritan Political Ideas in New England, 1630-1730 (New Haven, 1970), p. 177.
142. For city politics in later seventeenth-century New York, see, in addition to Ritchie, The Duke's Province, the relevant sections in Kammen, Colonial New York, Nash, The Urban Crucible, and Tully Forming American Politics. For the part played by religion and ethnicity in Leisler's rebellion, see David William Vorhees, `The "Fervent Zeale" of Jacob Leisler', WMQ, 3rd set., 51 (1994), pp. 447-72, and John M. Murrin, `English Rights as Ethnic Aggression: the English Conquest, the Charter of Liberties of 1683, and Leisler's Rebellion', in William Pencak and Conrad Edick Wright (eds), Authority and Resistance in Early New York (New York, 1988), pp. 56-94.
143. Hoberman and Socolow, Cities and Society, p. 5.
144. Nash, The Urban Crucible, p. 4.
145. Ibid., p. 21.
146. Ibid., pp. 29-30.
147. Cited by Breen, The Character of the Good Ruler, p. 178.
148. For political debate and social disruption in Boston in these decades, see Nash, The Urban Crucible, pp. 76-88.
149. Douglas Adair, `Rumbold's Dying Speech, 1685, and Jefferson's Last Words on Democracy, 1826', WMQ, 3rd set., 9 (1952), pp. 521-31.
Chapter 7. America as Sacred Space
1. Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), 2 vols (repr. Edinburgh, 1979), vol. 1, pp. 41-2.
2. Giovanni Botero, Relationi universali (Brescia, 1599), part IV, lib. 2, p. 45 (facsimile reprint of selected passages on the New World in Aldo Albonico, II mondo americano di Giovanni Botero (Rome, 1990), p. 216).
3. John Leddy Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World (2nd edn, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1970), p. 32.
4. See Sacvan Bercovitch, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven and London, 1975), pp. 140-1.
5. For the millennial and apocalyptic tradition, see Marjorie Reeves, The Influence of Prophecy in the Later Middle Ages. A Study in Joachimism (Oxford, 1969); and for its transfer to Spanish America, Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans; Jose Antonio Maravall, Utopia y reformismo en la Espana de los Austrias (Madrid, 1982), ch. 2; D. A. Brading, The First America. The Spanish Monarchy and the Liberal State, 1492-1867 (Cambridge, 1991), ch. 5; Bauder, Utopia e historia en Mexico, pp. 85-98.
6. Benavente (Motolinia), Memoriales, pp. 20-1.
7. Brading, First America, p. 126.
8. Benno M. Biermann, Bartolome de las Casas and Verapaz', in Juan Friede and Benjamin Keen (ed.), Bartolome de Las Casas in History (DeKalb, IL, 1971), pp. 443-84; Marcel Bataillon, Etudes sur Bartolome de Las Casas (Paris, 1965), pp. 137-202.
9. Fintan B. Warren, Vasco de Quiroga and his Pueblo-Hospitals of Santa Fe (Washington, 1963); Silvio Zavala, Sir Thomas More in New Spain. A Utopian Adventure of the Renaissance (Diamante III, The Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian Councils, London, 1955); Phelan, Millennial Kingdom, p. 47, and p. 150, n. 10.
10. Brading, First America, p. 110.
11. For the Jesuit communities in Paraguay, see especially Alberto Armani, Ciudad de Dios y Ciudad del Sol. El `Estado' jesuita de los guaranies, 1609-1768 (Mexico City, 1982; repr. 1987); Girolamo Imbruglia, L'invenzione del Paraguay (Naples, 1983); Magnus MOrner, The Political and Economic Activities of the Jesuits in the La Plata Region. The Hapsburg Era (Stockholm, 1953).
12. Armani, Ciudad de Dios, p. 96.
13. Force, Tracts, 1, no. 6, p. 14.
14. Above, p. 74.
15. Mather, Magnalia, 2, p. 442.
16. Cited by Phelan, Millennial Kingdom, p. 50. See also Brading, First America, p. 348.
17. See David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment. Popular Religious Beliefs in Early New England (New York, 1989), pp. 91-3.
18. Cited by Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA, 1956), p. 119.
19. Richard Crakanthorpe (1608), cited by Avihu Zakai, Exile and Kingdom. Hi
story and Apocalypse in the Puritan Migration to America (Cambridge, 1992), p. 62.
20. Mather, Magnalia, 1, pp. 44 and 46.
21. Morgan, Roger Williams, pp. 99-103.
22. Mather, Magnalia, 1, p. 66.
23. Ibid., p. 50. 24. Above, p. 48.
25. Sacvan Bercovitch, `The Winthrop Variation: a Model of American Identity', Proceedings of the British Academy, 97 (1997), pp. 75-94.
26. Cited by Bercovitch, Puritan Origins of the American Self, p. 102.
27. See the introduction to Fray Diego Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, and the Ancient Calendar, trans. and ed. by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden (Norman, OK, 1971), pp. 23-5, and Lee Eldridge Huddleston, Origins of the American Indians. European Concepts, 1492-1729 (Austin, TX, and London, 1967), ch. 1.
28. Huddleston, Origins, pp. 131-2. See also the contributions to part 1 of Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (eds), The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450 to 1800 (New York and Oxford, 2001), and Richard H. Popkin, `The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Indian Theory', in Y. Kaplan, H. Mechoulan and R. H. Popkin (eds), Menasseh ben Israel and his World (Leiden, 1989), pp. 63-82. I am indebted to Professor David Katz for drawing my attention to this essay.
29. See Cogley John Eliot's Mission, chs 1 and 4.
30. Ibid., p. 92; and see above, p. 74.
31. Cited by Canup, Out of the Wilderness, p. 74.
32. Mather, Magnalia, 1, p. 556.
33. Stuart Clark, Thinking with Demons. The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), p. 80.
34. Fernando Cervantes, The Devil in the New World. The Impact of Diabolism in New Spain (New Haven and London, 1994), pp. 14-16.
35. See Kenneth Mills, Idolatry and its Enemies. Colonial Andean Religion and Extirpation, 1640-1750 (Princeton, 1997), and Nicholas Griffiths, The Cross and the Serpent. Religious Repression and Resurgence in Colonial Peru (Norman, OK, and London, 1995).
36. Mather, Magnalia, 1, p. 55.
37. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, p. 167.
38. Ibid., p. 118.
39. Richard Godber, The Devil's Dominion. Magic and Religion in Early New England (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 5-6; Hall, Worlds of Wonder, p. 100. For magic in colonial British America as a whole, see Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, ch. 3.
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