The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer (Penguin Classics)

by Jesse L. Byock

  42 SVANHILD IS MARRIED AND TRAMPLED TO DEATH UNDER THE HOOVES OF HORSES

  There was in those times a powerful king called Jormunrek. His son was named Randver. The king called his son to speak with him and said: “You will travel with my counselor Bikki on a mission for me to King Jonakr. Svanhild, the daughter of Sigurd Fafnir’s Bane, has been raised there, and I know her to be the fairest maiden under the sun. More than any other woman I would like to marry her, and you are to ask for her hand in my name.” Randver replied: “I am obliged, sir, to travel on your errand.” Then he had the journey prepared in a fitting manner. They traveled until they came to King Jonakr. They saw Svanhild and thought her beauty most worthy. Randver met with the king and said: “King Jormunrek wants to offer you his kinship by marriage. He has heard of Svanhild and wants to choose her as his wife. She could hardly be given to a man who is more powerful.” King Jonakr called it a splendid match and said: “Jormunrek is a king of great renown.”

  Gudrun said: “Fortune is too fragile a thing to trust that it not break.” But with the exhortations of the king and all things considered, an agreement was reached. Svanhild went to the ship with a splendid following and sat on the raised deck next to the king’s son. Then Bikki spoke to Randver: “It would be more proper for you to have so beautiful a wife, rather than for an old man to have her.” That idea suited Randver’s thinking well, and he spoke agreeably to her, as she did to him. They arrived home in their own land and met with the king. Bikki said: “It behooves you, my lord, to know what has happened, although it is difficult to relate. Yet it has to do with deceits against you. Your son has received Svanhild’s full love, and she is his mistress. Do not let such a wrong go unpunished.”

  In the past Bikki had given the king much bad counsel, although this outstripped any of his previous ill advice. The king listened to his many wicked persuasions. He could not still his anger and ordered that Randver should be taken and hanged on the gallows. When Randver was led to the gallows, he took a hawk, plucked from it all its feathers, and said that it should be shown to his father. When the king saw it, he said: “One can see that he thinks I am shorn of honor just as this hawk is shorn of feathers.” Jormunrek then ordered Randver removed from the gallows, but Bikki had been busy in the meantime and Randver was dead.

  Bikki spoke again: “No one deserves worse from you than Svanhild. Let her die in disgrace.” The king answered: “I accept your advice.” Then Svanhild was bound in the gate of the fortress and horses were driven at her. But when she opened her eyes the horses did not dare trample on her. When Bikki saw this, he commanded that a skin bag be drawn over her head. Thus it was done, and then she died.

  43 GUDRUN URGES HER SONS TO AVENGE SVANHILD

  Gudrun heard of Svanhild’s violent death and she spoke to her sons: “How can you sit there so peacefully or speak with cheerful words, when Jormunrek has had your sister shamefully trampled to death under the hooves of horses? You do not have the spirit of Gunnar or of Hogni. They would avenge their kinswoman.” Hamdir answered: “Little did you praise Gunnar and Hogni when they killed Sigurd and you were reddened with his blood. Vile was the vengeance for your brothers when you killed your sons by Atli. We might better kill King Jormunrek if we were all together. But we cannot endure your taunts; so persistently are we being urged.”

  Gudrun went laughing and gave them drink from deep goblets. Afterward she chose large sturdy coats of mail and other armor for them. Then Hamdir said: “Here we shall part for the last time. You will hear the tidings and will hold a funeral feast for us and Svanhild.” Then they departed.

  Gudrun went to her chamber, her sorrow yet heavier, and said: “I have been married to three men. First I wedded Sigurd the slayer of Fafnir and he was betrayed, bringing me my deepest sorrow. Then I was given to King Atli, yet my heart was so full of hatred against him that in my grief I killed our sons. Then I went into the sea, but I was borne to land by waves, and I was married to this king. Then I married off Svanhild, sending her away to a foreign land with enormous wealth; when she was trampled under the feet of horses it was the most grievous of my sorrows after Sigurd. It was grimmest for me when Gunnar was placed in the snake pit, but it was harshest when the heart was cut out of Hogni. Better if Sigurd would come to meet me and I would go with him. Not a son, not a daughter is left here to comfort me. Do you remember now, Sigurd, what we spoke of, when we entered one bed? You said you would visit me from Hel and then wait there for me.”108 Thus ended her lamentations.

  44 CONCERNING THE SONS OF GUDRUN. THE FINAL CHAPTER.

  It is now to be told of Gudrun’s sons that she had prepared their armor so that iron could not bite through it. She cautioned her sons to cause no one damage with stones109 or other large objects, telling them they would come to harm if they did not do as she said. After they had set out they met their brother Erp and asked how he would help them. He answered: “As the hand helps the hand, or the foot helps the foot.” They took this reply to mean that he would not help them at all, and so they killed him.110

  Gudrun’s sons continued on their way, and it was but a short time before Hamdir stumbled and threw out his hand. “Erp must have told the truth,” he said. “I would have fallen just then, if I had not braced myself with my hand.” A short time later Sorli stumbled. He threw out his foot, regained his balance, and said: “I would have fallen just then if I had not supported myself with both feet.” Thus they decided that they had wronged their brother Erp.

  They journeyed until they came to King Jormunrek’s. They went before him and attacked at once. Hamdir cut off both his hands and Sorli both his feet. Then Hamdir said: “His head would now be off if our brother Erp were alive, whom we killed on the way. Too late we have realized this.” As the verse relates:

  30. Off would now be the head

  If Erp were living,

  Our battle-eager brother

  Whom we killed on the way.

  In the action the brothers had not observed their mother’s wishes, as they had used stones to wound. Now men attacked them, but they defended themselves bravely and well, killing many of the attackers. Iron was of no avail against the brothers. Then a one-eyed man, tall and ancient, came up and said: “You are not wise if you do not know how to kill these men.” King Jormunrek answered: “Advise us how, if you can.” He said: “You should stone them to death.” Thus it was done and from all directions stones flew at them. So ended the lives of Hamdir and Sorli.

  NOTES

  1. Oðin, foremost among Norse deities, was the god of war, wisdom, ecstasy, and poetry. Known as the All-father, he was regarded as an ancestor of many Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, and other Germanic royal houses. The element sig (victory), which appears in proper names in the Volsung family, may emphasize the special relationship that existed between the Volsungs and Odin, who was also called Sigtýr, victory god.

  2. In this sentence and in the one that follows, the manuscript is partly illegible. The full translation is taken from a later paper copy of the original manuscript.

  3. Breðafönn, “Bredi’s drift,” literally means snowdrift or glacier. The proper name Bredi is derived from breðafönn; the reverse derivation described in the saga is a folk etymology. The name Skaði, derived from the word for ski or snowshoe, occurs elsewhere in Old Icelandic literature as the name of a goddess (originally a giantess) who goes about in the winter hunting with bow and arrow. It has been suggested that the episode of Skadi, Sigi, and Bredi is based on an otherwise lost myth.

  4. The text says both killed and murdered (myrðan), reflecting the Norse distinction between manslaughter and murder. After the act, if the killer publicly announced his deed, it was manslaughter, an offense that could be atoned for with wergild. If, however, there was no announcement, or if the killing was performed in stealth, it was murder. The killer was then referred to as a morð-vargr, murderer (literally, killer wolf), and was beyond the pale of the law.

  5. Vargr (wolf or monster) was used in Icela
ndic law codes to refer to outlaws (see n. 4), who could be hunted down like wolves. The phrase “wolf in hallowed places” suggests an outlaw guilty of murder or of a particularly serious offense, especially committing a crime within a hallowed place or sanctuary.

  6. Ríkr traditionally means powerful or mighty in Old Norse. A new sense of the word, that of being rich or wealthy, appeared near the end of the thirteenth century and was probably influenced by foreign usage. Since this manuscript was written down sometime between 1200 and 1270, I have chosen to employ the traditional meaning.

  7. The Huns were regarded in Germanic heroic legend as just another Germanic people. In the Prose Edda Snorri Sturluson places Sigi’s kingdom in Frakkland, or France.

  8. These lines are somewhat convoluted. The sense of the passage is that Rerir is caught between a rock and a hard place: he must either kill his maternal uncles or let his father go unavenged.

  9. The wife of Odin. In “Oddrun’s Lament” both Frigg and the goddess Freya are invoked for aid in childbirth.

  10. Óskmœr (wish-maiden) is a rare term. It may come from Óskamœr, chosen or adopted maiden, i.e., stepdaughter. Here it refers to a woman who may be a valkyrie, one of the supernatural women associated with Odin. The valkyries were Odin’s chosen maids. Valkyries haunted battlefields, granting victory and choosing those who were to die. The literal meaning of valkyrja is “chooser of the slain.”

  11. The ability to put on a shape made of feathers, i.e., a bird shape, is commonly attributed to supernatural women in Old Icelandic literature.

  12. Haugr, mound or how, is a term often found in Old Icelandic writings. On occasion a mound close to the house of an estate is mentioned, and from such a vantage point a master would survey his property. Haugr also means cairn or burial mound and in some instances refers to a kind of sacrificial mound. It is not clear which meaning is intended here.

  13. The passage does not state clearly who ate the apple. Although it might seem logical for the queen to consume the fruit, the grammar favors the king. My thanks to Stefán Karlsson of the Stofnun Árna-magnússonar for his advice on this passage.

  14. Warriors killed in battle were believed to go to Valhalla (Hall of the Slain) to join Odin, for whom they would fight in the final battle that will result in the destruction of the world. A man dying in bed might be marked with the point of a spear, a weapon sacred to Odin, so that he could go to Valhalla.

  15. For the meaning of the name Volsung, see Introduction.

  16. Eik means oak but the Icelanders often used the word as a general term for tree.

  17. Barnstokkr literally means child-trunk (Bairnstock), although it is not clear that this was its original meaning. In this passage the tree is called eik (oak) (see n. 16). A few passages farther on it is called apaldr (apple tree), another general term for tree. Apaldr, however, may have a further symbolic meaning, possibly being associated with the apple tree of the goddess Idunn. Barnstokkr may also be identified with the world tree Yggdrasil. It is also conceivable that the word was originally bran(d)stokkr, the first part of the compound being derived from brandr, brand or firebrand, a word sometimes synonymous with “hearth.” If so, the word may originally have been connected with the fire burning in the hall.

  18. Odin is often portrayed in the legendary sagas as visiting men in such a disguise. His headgear, referred to as a deep hood, was probably a form of hat. The story of how Odin lost his eye to obtain wisdom is told by Snorri in the Prose Edda.

  19. Kynfylgja literally means family fetch. A fetch was a guardian spirit or a supernatural attendant, usually female, associated with an individual or a family. The term is used here with the more abstract meaning of inherited characteristic or (bad) luck.

  20. Jarðús literally means earth house, apparently some form of a dugout.

  21. The generic term “man” is used and may mean an assistant, a companion, or here a boy with manly qualities.

  22. It was customary to fasten together the ends of sleeves by stitching them just above the hands.

  23. In this sentence and in the preceding one, the manuscript is partly illegible. The full translation is taken from a later paper copy of the original manuscript.

  24. It appears that the leaf is sent by Odin. In Norse mythology, ravens are associated with Odin. Snorri calls Odin Hrafnaguð (God of Ravens), and the raven is called Odin’s swan or Odin’s seagull. Odin had two ravens called Hugin and Munin (Thought and Memory) who flew off every day. When they returned, they perched on the god’s shoulders and told him of events throughout the world.

  25. Norns were supernatural women who controlled the fates of men. In the Prose Edda, Snorri says that there are three Norns: Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld (Past, Present, and Future). Other sources, however, say that there are Norns belonging to the races of gods, elves, and dwarfs, and beyond Snorri’s three great ones there were many others. These supernatural women are often associated with specific individuals; for example, a Norn would be present at an individual’s birth to determine his fate. The use of the indefinite form here in the text makes it likely that the latter type of Norn is meant.

  26. Laukr (leek) may also refer to garlic. Both leek and garlic are considered in many cultures to have magical or medicinal properties.

  27. Hringstead has been identified as Ringsted on the island of Zealand. Ringsted was at times a royal Danish residence. Like most other place-names in this part of the saga, however, Hringstead is almost impossible to identify with certainty. Solfell (Solfjöll) literally means mountains of the sun.

  28. There were many kings, some of whom did not rule over a country but controlled an army. Independent military leaders who commanded ships were often called sea kings.

  29. Norvasund usually denotes the Strait of Gibraltar, but not in this instance. In the equivalent passage in “The First Lay of Helgi Hunding’s Bane,” the name is written Orvasund.

  30. The conversation that follows is a senna, or contest of insults. Such contests are frequent in Old Icelandic literature. Most of the insults in this senna make use of one of the worst possible affronts in the culture, i.e., accusations of effeminacy or passive homosexuality. In Iceland, to accuse someone of passive homosexuality was an offense punishable by outlawry.

  31. In the preceding passage Granmar is Hodbrodd’s father, not his brother. In “The Second Lay of Helgi Hunding’s Bane,” this senna takes place between Sinfjotli and Gudmund.

  32. Minni (ancient lore) also means the memorial cup or toast at feasts and sacrifices.

  33. Asgard was the realm of the gods, as opposed to Miðgarð (Middle-Earth), the abode of men.

  34. Later in the saga, Grani is the name of Sigurd’s horse.

  35. Fyrir Grindum (in front of Grindir) may mean ships anchored at dock.

  36. These women may be valkyries.

  37. Odin again. One of Odin’s functions was that of psychopomp, guide to the world of the dead.

  38. I.e., allowed to purchase provisions.

  39. The meaning of the passage may be that Sigmund took over the running of Eylimi’s kingdom, but the text is vague.

  40. Spádísir (spaewomen) literally means prophetic female spirits. The dísir were guardian spirits who played a minor cultic role. Spádísir is oftento refer to val used in a generalized or metaphorical sense to refer to valkyries, Norns, or goddesses. Here it would seem to be Norns, deciding men’s fate.

  41. Odin once again.

  42. Ótta, the last part of the night just before daybreak.

  43. Fosterage was a Norse custom of having a child raised in another household in order to extend kinship bonds or to form political alliances.

  44. Runes are the characters of the alphabet used by the Germanic peoples for writing on wood or stone. They had both magical and practical uses.

  45. Odin’s eight-legged horse.

  46. The passage may also be read, “I know of the kin of this serpent.”

  47. Loki is the trickster in Old Norse myth. He is an ambigu
ous figure, sometimes on the side of the giants, sometimes on the side of the gods. The two aspects of his character are evident in this tale: he places the gods in danger, only to rescue them himself.