101 Things You Didn't Know About Da Vinci

by Shana Priwer

  Pre-Renaissance city-states were economically mixed. Generally speaking, rich people lived in the cities and poorer ones lived in the country. Gradually, however, the wealth spread out. As bankers and other merchants became wealthy, classes other than nobility were coming into money for the first time.

  The Early Renaissance really began in Florence. There, some of the wealthiest members of society started supporting humanities and the arts. Writing, painting, sculpture, architecture, and science were all fields that were suddenly in the public eye. The Medicis were one of the most influential families during the Renaissance and would turn out to be one of Leonardo's many patrons. Lorenzo de Medici (1449–1492), son of Cosimo de Medici (one of the period's wealthiest Italians), gained popular acknowledgement and support by funding art and architecture.

  In spite of newfound money and culture, life was not entirely peaceful during the Renaissance. In 1454, Milan, Florence, and Naples were united under the Treaty of Lodi, through which each city attempted to ally itself with the others. But thanks to Pope Alexander VI's scheming goals, the French King Charles VIII headed up an Italian invasion and several areas were conquered as a result.

  Then, in 1495, King Ferdinand of Spain got involved and helped to create the League of Venice, which included Spain and other Italian city-states. France invaded Italy on several other occasions during this period, contributing to the political unrest so characteristic of the Renaissance. The popes of this era (Alexander VI, Julius II, and Leo X) served mainly to enforce a Christian system of beliefs throughout the country, in part by preventing Ottoman invasion. By 1527, the Holy Roman Empire had taken over what was left of the city- and papal-states.

  But enough about the attacks on Italy during the Renaissance; let's get back to the great cultural strides made during this period. Humanism was the Renaissance's most important conceptual innovation. This idea of a human-based study included a revival of classical beliefs from ancient Greece and Rome.

  The hallmark characteristics of the Renaissance peaked between about 1490 and 1527, when German and Spanish imperial troops sacked Rome. This period, when Leonardo da Vinci did much of his work, is usually called the High Renaissance because it represents a culmination of all the ideas that had been floating around Florence in the previous years. The main idea was that beauty could be achieved by combining classical forms with landscapes, cityscapes, and other “natural” elements. Unlike the Early Renaissance (which centered mostly around Florence), other parts of Italy, including Rome and Milan, felt the High Renaissance's influence.

  In addition to Leonardo da Vinci, other famous artists of the High Renaissance include Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) and Raphael (1483–1520). Like Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael both studied in Florence and worked in painting, architecture, and other arts.

  16

  Renaissance religion

  The Renaissance had the biggest impact on the humanities, arts, and sciences. As with everything in Europe at that time, however, there were also religious implications. Papal states (regions run by the pope, who served as the bishop of Rome) were as important politically as the city-states, which included Florence and Milan.

  At the beginning of the High Renaissance, Pope Julius II (reigning 1503–1513) was in power. Though a religious figure, religion wasn't the only thing he influenced! Julius II's goals were also politically and geographically motivated. He strove to remove the French from Italian territory before they could completely take over the Italian papacy. By 1512 Italy had joined Spain in the Holy League and the countries united to defeat the French, thus scoring a victory for both Christianity and Italy.

  During this period, popes were often expelled for bribery or other treacheries, but their power was usually restored. To this extent, religious leadership was consistent but not absolute. Popes also often handed their office over to close friends and family members, and this culture of nepotism contributed to the unrest. Further, popes led privileged lives and had access to luxuries that much of the population would never experience. Consequently, although they were respected and feared for their connections to God, people looked at them with suspicion. High-level politicians would even marry off their daughters to popes or papal families. Lorenzo de Medici, for example, had his daughter Magdalena marry a pope's son. Not a bad way to ensure a solid connection between religion and government!

  A fragile stability was reached during the early sixteenth century, and by the middle of the sixteenth century, virtually all of Italy was at least nominally Roman Catholic. The Roman Catholic Church's corruptions were apparent, however. The close union of religion with politics and wealth dismantled the very nature of the Church as an institution of holiness. People were also dissatisfied with the emphasis the Church placed on ritual, rather than personal prayer. Then, in 1517, Martin Luther (1483–1546) unknowingly sparked the Protestant Reformation when he nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany (see number 82). The Protestant Reformation attempted to transform the Church by calling for a return to the Bible's teachings. Since religious revolution was a popular idea at the time, people from all over Europe joined in support. Because of the Reformation, the Church was ultimately forced to revise its close dependency on outside groups. But the Reformation also caused a split in the Catholic Church, as new Protestant groups such as Lutherans and Anabaptists were created.

  It's amazing to think that Leonardo and other Renaissance artists were creating their masterpieces amid all this political turmoil and religious unrest. Even though the Church was still entrenched in its strongholds from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance helped artists to break from tradition and, in many ways, address their art in a more personal fashion. The Protestant Reformation gained strength as Leonardo neared the end of his life, but the general feeling of social unrest remained prevalent throughout his most productive years.

  17

  Don't forget the golden oldies

  While the Renaissance celebrated humanism and individual abilities, it was also an era that remembered the past. Classical Greek and Roman antiquity was reborn during the Renaissance. People believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans had gotten things right: Their art had rules—and good rules at that. The certainty of the classics provided a calming effect that Leonardo and his contemporaries were desperate to incorporate during such troubled times.

  One of the most attractive elements of this classical revival was a sense of beauty and proportion. Classical architecture used balance and harmony for its aesthetic appeal and symbolically religious nature. Inner and outer beauty were equivalent in classical sculptures. Greek statues were notoriously well proportioned, a balance that was created in order to please the gods and, by association, the surrounding world.

  The idea of balance extended to architecture as well. Classical temples with ordered plans and symmetrical columns produced a sense of order that Renaissance architects tried to recapture. Three major Greek orders, or architectural styles, emerged, providing a clean way to organize form and structure. The three orders, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, are best known for the columns with those names. Because classical temples were completely devoted to the gods for whom they were named, their proportions had to be symbolic of the gods' perfection. The idea was that an ordered space should project that order onto its inhabitants, sort of like a clean desk inspiring you to work more efficiently.

  There was a bit of nostalgia at work here, too. When it came to looking back to the antiquities, Renaissance artists adopted the familiar “grass is always greener on the other side” philosophy. In their view, Greek and Roman culture provided strong role models, little apparent corruption (at least compared to what Renaissance artists faced), and some vague notion of a glorious past. These were strong ideals, and Leonardo and his contemporaries embraced them eagerly. The Renaissance Church was, of course, still a powerful influence in the lives of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Italians, and maybe its strong presence stood in s
tark contrast to the perceived serenity and order of their Greek and Roman predecessors.

  Reading and writing in classical languages such as Latin was popular during the Renaissance. Although Leonardo probably wasn't able to study original Latin texts, many of his works do show a careful study of classicism. For instance, his Adoration of the Magi has architectural elements in the background that show a distinctly classical influence. Similarly, Annunciation uses Greek-like cornerstones, as well as other architectural elements, which likely came from Leonardo's interest in the classics. He did, though, add a Renaissance twist by giving the stones rough surfaces and pronounced joints instead of a smooth, classical-era finish. How typical of Leonardo to take an established style and make it his own! Another of Leonardo's major works, The Last Supper, uses a careful sense of proportion and symmetry to reflect a divine influence—certainly appropriate for the subject matter. This idea was actually derived directly from Greek and Roman design and construction methods.

  18

  Show me the money!

  The start of the Italian Renaissance also meant the restoration of trade, which had almost completely dried up during the Middle Ages. As populations grew and prosperous city-states expanded in Italy, England, and France, trade increased as well. The first order of business was shipping luxury goods from the Mediterranean to Italian port cities such as Pisa, Genoa, and Venice. Situated between Western Europe and the Mediterranean, Italy was in a great location to become a major trade center. These port cities got bigger and wealthier as trade increased, which, in turn, caused changes in many aspects of society, including art and finance.

  As trade increased the flow of money through Italy's port cities and those with secondary industries such as banking started to flourish. Florence, Leonardo da Vinci's home region, became Italy's central banking city in the early fourteenth century, which included the bank of the influential Medici family. Although based in Florence, the Medici's bank had branches in other cities across Italy and the rest of Europe. The bank financed a variety of projects, and its substantial profits were invested in the political and cultural life of Florence and other Italian cities.

  As commerce grew, people in the trading and banking industries came to towns to interact and profit. Trade opened up the world beyond the confines of traditional town walls, and openness to new ideas and innovations spread to other parts of society. Towns and cities grew, and peasants migrating to towns from the countryside helped to create a new class structure. These former country folks became the working class, whereas the noble people and wealthy merchants became the ruling class. These urban elite led the Renaissance's political and cultural changes, while the rural poor participated very little.

  The closing of trade routes to China during the Italian Renaissance also had a big economic influence. Beginning with thirteenth-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo and his famous trip to China, Italy established complicated routes to China and the Far East to trade luxuries like spices and silk. However, when the Ming Dynasty came to power in the fourteenth century, China closed trade with outsiders. Suddenly, the wealth and resources that would have previously gone into foreign trade were instead available for projects within Italy. The rich ruling merchant class began to invest in Italian society, commissioning myriad works of art and architecture that enriched the culture. Individual artists who received these commissions, like Leonardo, also benefited from this process.

  Another innovation, the printing press, had a large effect on the spread of knowledge during the Renaissance. In 1452, the printing of Johannes Gutenberg's famous Gutenberg Bible served as an early example of movable type's possibilities (see number 61). While Germany took the early lead in printing efforts, Italy soon took up the challenge, establishing presses that printed affordable copies of classical texts and other works. Suddenly, knowledge was easier to spread—libraries could serve as repositories for information, and people could afford to buy printed books instead of expensive hand-copied volumes. Leonardo da Vinci, among many others, gleaned much knowledge in his early years from the volumes of books available in his family and friends' libraries. And he definitely put this knowledge to good use.

  19

  The importance of being sponsored

  Everyone knows about the stereotype of the starving artist. Even during the Renaissance, when artists were important members of society, patronage was one of the only ways an artist could earn a living while devoting himself to—you guessed it—making art. While some Renaissance artists had to find other work to pay the bills, many searched high and low for a patron—someone to sponsor their artistic development. And having a patron was much better than the Renaissance equivalent of waiting tables!

  The idea of having the Church or other groups sponsor artists and particular artworks began well before the Renaissance. In Medieval times the Church sponsored many religious works of art, and during the Middle Ages there were groups of secular politicians (kings, noblemen, and princes) who would come together in sponsoring artists to create both religious and secular works.

  The Renaissance took patronage to a new level. In some cases, a wealthy individual would bring an artist into his home, providing food and shelter in exchange for art. Alternatively, a person or group would commission a particular work of art, and the artist would be employed until the work's completion. Depending on the size and scope, these commissioned works could take years to finish. In that respect, these two types of patronage were sometimes nearly equivalent, although commissioned artwork gave the artist more independence than the artist-in-residence option.

  Religion was one of the most significant reasons for art's popularity during this time. Sponsoring a religious work of art made you appear more pious, putting you in good stead with the Church and conferring greater prestige on your family. Wealthy families lived in the public eye; to be perceived as wealthy, people had to surround themselves with beauty—particularly beauty created expressly for them. The ability to afford commissioned artwork was a sign of power, and Renaissance politicians and other leading figures were not shy about flaunting their wealth. Leonardo appeared, for a time, to be happy to oblige the wealthy in this endeavor. And who can blame him? If nothing else, it probably paid well.

  Patronage was also a matter of simple aesthetics. In a world before television, movies, and popular culture, appreciating fine sculpture or painting was a pleasure for many people. Those who could afford art created by the masters chose to support it, and in return, they were able to surround themselves with the most incredible and skilled art of the period.

  In addition to wealthy individuals (including kings and political figures), collective patronage was also popular during the Renaissance. For example, the wool guild patronized artwork in the Florence Cathedral and sponsored a competition for the design of the baptistery doors. Not too different from corporate sponsorships of cultural events today!

  The relationship between patron and artist was usually quite formal. Most of the time a contract was involved, requiring the artist to create a specified number of pieces. Some patrons, particularly ones with a lot of cash to throw around, sponsored artists to work more or less at their whim. If this arrangement worked, then everyone was happy; if the obligations of the contract weren't met, however, patronage could be terminated and the artist would be dismissed. Many different patrons sponsored Leonardo over the course of his life. While in most cases he was likely terminated for reasons beyond his control, it's also possible that Leonardo ended some of the relationships on his own.

  Generally, when artist and patron argued, it was over money—as in the artist wanted a raise but the patron didn't want to shell out. In Leonardo da Vinci's case, there were lots of arguments over his inability to complete projects. You can't blame the patrons for wanting what they paid for. In some cases, the style or content of a particular work sparked disagreements. Early in the Renaissance, patrons more or less had complete control over their artists. As the Renaissance progressed and art b
ecame more highly valued, however, artists demanded more freedom when it came to their work.

  20

  Lorenzo the Magnificent

  Want a way to enhance your political reputation? Today's politicians might support a worthy cause, but it was different during the Renaissance. Back then sponsoring an artist was all the rage. Some patrons would actually specify the quantity of gold, silver, and other precious metals they wanted artists to include in their paintings! These measurements assured patrons of bragging rights for having the most expensive sculpture or the most precious painting.

  In Renaissance Florence, the Medicis were the most important political family (see number 15). The richest family in Italy (and perhaps in Europe), they spent a great deal of money building churches, supporting art, giving to charity, and constructing family monuments to ensure their continued political and social control. They were like Renaissance Vanderbilts or Rockefellers. During Leonardo's time, Lorenzo de' Medici (also known as Lorenzo the Magnificent) ruled Florence. Thanks to Lorenzo's avid support of the arts, Florence rose to a central position in the Renaissance artistic world. As the cultural center of Europe, Florence also became the founding location of the new humanist movement. Florence was certainly the place to be!

  Under the Medici family, patronage grew to include more than just single works of art. The Medicis commissioned not only gardens, fountains, and public sculptures, but also residences, government centers, fortified compounds, artistic institutions, and even intricately staged public events. Was there anything they didn't commission? When you're the richest family in Europe, you get what you want.