by Paul Ortiz
93. Smedley Butler, War Is a Racket (1935; New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2003), 4–5.
94. “Mr. Hoover Says,” Afro-American, April 7, 1928.
95. Ibid. For Howard University president Mordecai Johnson’s on-air critiques of US imperialism, see “More Howard University Air Programs,” Afro-American, November 30, 1929
96. “Haiti Speaks,” Washington Bee, June 4, 1921.
97. “Democracy in Dixieland,” Negro World, January 1, 1927.
98. Bernardo Ruiz Suarez, The Color Question in the Two Americas, trans. John Crosby Gordon (New York: Hunt Publishing, 1922), 19.
99. Ibid., 95.
CHAPTER 6: FORGOTTEN WORKERS OF AMERICA
1. Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007).
2. For an overview, see Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919 (1987; New York: W.W. Norton, 2008); Louis Adamic, Dynamite: The Story of Class Violence in America (1931; New York: AK Press, 2008); David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans, 1862–1872 (1967; Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981); Paul Krause, The Battle for Homestead, 1880–1892: Politics, Culture and Steel (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992); Graham Adams, The Age of Industrial Violence, 1910–1915 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Jeremy Brecher, Strike!, rev. ed. (1972; Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 1997); Robert Michael Smith, From Blackjacks to Briefcases: A History of Commercialized Strikebreaking and Unionbusting in the United States (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003); Robin Archer, Why Is There No Labor Party in the United States? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007); Josiah Lambert, If Workers Took a Notion: The Right to Strike and American Political Development (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005).
3. On the pro-employer bent of labor law in the United States, see Christopher L. Tomlins, The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880–1960 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Christopher L. Tomlins, Law, Labor, and Ideology in the Early American Republic (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
4. Karen Orren, Belated Feudalism: Labor, the Law, and Liberal Development in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
5. Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, 237.
6. William H. Skaggs, The Southern Oligarchy: An Appeal in Behalf of the Silent Masses of Our County Against the Despotic Rule of the Few (New York: Devin-Adair Co., 1924), 299.
7. Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, 181–82.
8. Carolyn Ashbaugh, Lucy Parsons: An American Revolutionary (1976; Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2012), 55.
9. Howard Kester, Revolt Among the Sharecroppers (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 46.
10. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, 142.
11. “Peace for Capital and Labor” Florida Times-Union, May 25, 1901. On the corporate consolidation of power in the Progressive Era, see Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916 (1963; New York: Free Press, 1977); Goodwyn, The Populist Moment; Nancy Cohen, The Reconstruction of American Liberalism, 1865–1914 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); James Livingston, Origins of the Federal Reserve System: Money, Class and Corporate Capitalism, 1890–1913 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989).
12. “The Color Line That Belts the Earth,” Florida Times-Union, March 20, 1904. For the relationship between lynching and voter suppression, see Cox, Caste, Class, and Race, 555.
13. American Social History Project, Nelson Lichtenstein, Susan Strasser, and Roy Rosenzweig, Who Built America? Working People and the Nation’s Economy, Politics, Culture, and Society, 1877 to the Present (New York: Worth Publishers, 2000), 2: 167.
14. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Economics of Negro Emancipation in the United States,” Sociological Review 4, no. 3 (October 1911): 310.
15. Keyssar, The Right to Vote, 136–71.
16. James Green, “Democracy Comes to ‘Little Siberia’: Aliquippa, Pennsylvania, 1933–1937,” Labor’s Heritage 5 (August 1993): 4–27.
17. Gabriela F. Arredondo, Mexican Chicago: Race, Identity, and Nation, 1916–39 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008), 93.
18. For an analysis of the emergence of the Sunbelt in terms of politics, race, and labor, see Joseph Crespino, Strom Thurmond’s America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012).
19. For workers’ strike actions in California agriculture between the 1880s and 1910s, see Richard Steven Street, Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769–1913 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), 81, 92, 319–20, 332–33, 433–34, 454–69; Frank P. Barajas, Curious Unions: Mexican American Workers and Resistance in Oxnard, California, 1898–1961 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010). The process of corporate consolidation of farming in the West is dramatized in Frank Norris’s 1901 novel The Octopus: A Story of California.
20. Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (1935; Santa Barbara, CA: Peregrine Publishers, 1971), 139–40.
21. Saxton, Indispensable Enemy.
22. “Growers and Shippers to Gather Wage Data,” Florida Grower, December 25, 1920; “Cause Spread,” Florida Grower, December 4, 1920.
23. Robert Perkinson, Texas Tough: The Rise of America’s Prison Empire (New York: Henry Holt, 2010), 55.)
24. Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, 170.
25. For a discussion of the implementation of the Dawes Act, see Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 2014), 157–61.
26. Cox, Capitalism and American Leadership, 249.
27. Johnson, Revolution in Texas; Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, 183–87; Gerald Horne, Black and Brown: African Americans and the Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920 (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 156–80; Charles H. Harris III and Louis R. Sadler, The Plan de San Diego: Tejano Rebellion, Mexican Intrigue (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2013).
28. Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead.
29. Kelly Lytle Hernández, Migra! A History of the U.S. Border Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 54–57.
30. The Nazis studied the use of Zyklon B at the US–Mexico border and later used it as a weapon to exterminate Jewish people and others in death camps during the Holocaust. See David Dorado Romo, Ringside Seat to a Revolution: An Underground Cultural History of El Paso and Juárez (El Paso: Cinco Puntos Press, 2005), 240–44.
31. Scott Simon, “The Bath Riots: Indignity Along the Mexican Border,” interview with J. Burnett, National Public Radio, January 28, 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5176177.
32. Clements quoted in Cletus E. Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870–1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 105–6.
33. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 125–26.
34. For deportation campaigns over time, see Ernesto Galarza, Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story (Santa Barbara, CA: McNally & Loftin, 1964), 39–40; Julie M. Weise, Corazón de Dixie: Mexicanos in the U.S. South Since 1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2015), 45–46; Nestor P. Rodriguez and Cecilia Menjívar, “Central American Immigrants and Racialization in a Post–Civil Rights Era,” in How the United States Racializes Latinos: White Hegemony and Its Consequences, ed. José A. Coba, Jorge Duany, and Joe R. Feagin (Boulder, CO: Paradigm: 2009), 193–94.
35. Dora Anderson, interviewed by Paul Ortiz, August 3, 1994, Tallahassee, Florida, for Behind the Veil: Documenting African American Life in the Jim Crow South, Center for Documentary Studies, Duke University (henceforth cited as Behind the Veil). See also Robert J. Norrell, Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 20
09), 113–14. Leon Litwack has written extensively on Jim Crow–era white violence against “successful blacks” in Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 150–63.
36. Du Bois, in “Economics of Negro Emancipation,” states, “Of the proportion of farm ownership the Census says that between 1890 and 1900, while the number of Negro farmers probably increased by about 36 or 38 per cent, the number of Negro owners increased over 57 per cent, and the percentage of ownership by 3.5 per cent. So that 187,799 Negro farms, or 25.2 per cent of all Negro farms were owned. The rapid increase of this group between 1890 and 1900 alarmed the merchants” (311).
37. Roland B. Eustler, “Agricultural Credit and the Negro Farmer,” Journal of Social Forces 8 (1929–30): 420.
38. “Our Good White Folks Way Down in Dixie,” Negro World, March 28, 1925.
39. For the creation of state systems of forced labor after the formal abolition of slavery, see J. C. Powell, The American Siberia or Fourteen Years’ Experience in a Southern Convict Camp (1891; Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1970); Stetson Kennedy, Southern Exposure (1946; Boca Raton: Florida Atlantic University Press, 1991); Pete Daniel, The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1910–1969 (1972; Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Alex Lichtenstein, Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South (London: Verso, 1996); Matthew J. Mancini, One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866–1928 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996); David M. Oshinsky, “Worse Than Slavery”: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice (New York: Free Press, 1996); Talitha L. LeFlouria, Chained in Silence: Black Women and Convict Labor in the New South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015); Mary Ellen Curtin, Black Prisoners and Their World: Alabama, 1865–1900 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000); Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Doubleday, 2008).
40. “During the Cotton Picking Season, U.S. Attorney’s Claim,” Pittsburgh Courier, February 19, 1927.
41. “A New Form of Labor Peonage in the Cotton Belt,” Norfolk Journal and Guide, November 13, 1926.
42. “Imported Porto Rican Laborers Suffering at the Hands of Arizona Cotton Growers,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 9, 1926.
43. See Angelo Falcon, “A History of Puerto Rican Politics in New York City: 1860s to 1945,” in Puerto Rican Politics in Urban America, ed. James Jennings and Monte Rivera (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984), 27–28.
44. Morris Milgram, “Involuntary Servitude in Florida,” Twice A Year: A Book of The Arts, and Civil Liberties, vol. 14 (Fall–Winter 1946–1947), 410, 413.
45. James, A History of Pan-African Revolt, 89.
46. “Why Scarce,” Florida Metropolis, January 11, 1906.
47. “Punishing Criminals,” Florida Metropolis, January 9, 1906.
48. “Let It Be Done Here Too,” Florida Metropolis, January 27, 1907
49. Mario Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest: A Theory of Racial Inequality (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1979), 78–89
50. Michael Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 30–37; Sterling D. Spero and Abram L. Harris, The Black Worker: The Negro and the Labor Movement (1931; New York: Atheneum, 1974), 173.
51. On union racism, see Spero and Harris, The Black Worker, 53–115. Human resources professionals saw the racial wage differential as a key tool in management’s arsenal. See D. N. Crosthwait, “Making Up the Labor Shortage,” Industrial Management, vol. T (May 1918): 412–13. See also Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest, 51–52; McWilliams, Brothers Under the Skin, 312–46; George Lipsitz, Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006).
52. Elaine Bernard and John Trumpbour, “Unions and Latinos: Mutual Transformation,” in Latinos: Remaking America, ed. Marcelo Suárez-Orozco and Mariela Páez (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 126–45.
53. Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest, 89–92; John H. M. Laslett, Sunshine Was Never Enough: Los Angeles Workers, 1880–2010 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 203.
54. On the struggle against color bars, see Herbert Hill, Black Labor and the American Legal System: Race, Work, and the Law (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Robert H. Zieger, For Jobs and Freedom: Race and Labor in America Since 1865 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2007).
55. T. J. Woofter, “The Negro and Industrial Peace,” Survey 45 (December 18, 1920): 420–21.
56. Kester, Revolt Among the Sharecroppers, 21.
57. “Adjust Wages and Working Opportunities,” Afro-American, May 30, 1925.
58. Carol Shammas, Marylynn Salmon, and Michel Dahlin, Inheritance in America: From Colonial Times to the Present (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 3; Andrew F. Brimmer, “Preamble: The Economic Cost of Discrimination Against Black Americans,” in A Different Vision: Race and Public Policy, vol. 2, ed. Thomas D. Boston (London: Routledge, 1997); Melvin L. Oliver and Thomas M. Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality (New York: Routledge, 1997); Maya Wesby, “Why Rich Kids Become Rich Adults and Poor Kids Become Poor Adults,” Wilson Quarterly (August 13, 2015), https://wilsonquarterly.com/stories/why-rich-kids-become-rich-adults-and-poor-kids-become-poor-adults/.
59. James, A History of Pan-African Revolt, 67–101.
60. David Brody, Steelworkers in America: The Nonunion Era (1960; Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).
61. “White Men Bomb Home in Effort to Force Family to Vacate Neighborhood,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 19, 1924; “Kansas City Pastor Escapes Bomb,” Afro-American, September 26, 1924; “Wrecked by Dynamite,” Afro-American, September 3, 1912; “Will Blow Up Whole Block, Say Whites,” Pittsburgh Courier, June 21, 1924; “Police Give No Aid When Mob Menaces Man’s Home,” Chicago Defender, November 22, 1924; “Residential Restriction Working in Chicago,” Negro World, January 31, 1925. Paul Ortiz, “U.S. Race Riots, 1917–1923,” in The Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, ed. Nicole Watkins (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007), 438; Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 30–31.
62. Michael R. Belknap, “The Mechanics of Repression: J. Edgar Hoover, the Bureau of Investigation and the Radicals, 1917–1925,” Crime and Social Justice 7 (Spring–Summer 1977): 49–58.
63. Elliot M. Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1964), 13–14.
64. James Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 47.
65. James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (New York: Viking, 1933), 315.
66. Ortiz, Emancipation Betrayed, 206.
67. John Hope Franklin and John Whittington Franklin, eds., My Life and an Era: The Autobiography of Buck Colbert Franklin (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997); Scott Ellsworth, Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982); Ortiz, “U.S. Race Riots, 1917–1923,” 435–43.
68. James Hirsch, Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002), 8.
69. James Loewen, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (New York: Touchstone, 2005).
70. Nan Elizabeth Woodruff, American Congo: The African American Freedom Struggle in the Delta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012).
71. “Daily Newspapers,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 23, 1926.
72. “Tampa Mob Burns Race Land Office,” Pittsburgh Courier, February 6, 1
926.
73. “Mob Burns Florida Realty Office,” Chicago Defender, February 6, 1926.
74. Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, 217–20; Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 164–67; Francisco Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995); Acuña, Occupied America, 167–68.
75. Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, 218.
76. Zaragosa Vargas, Labor Rights Are Civil Rights: Mexican American Workers in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 55–58.
77. Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, 218.
78. Cox, Caste, Class, and Race, 393.
79. McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 236–37.
80. Galarza, Spiders in the House, 4; Nelson A. Pichardo Almanzar and Brian W. Kulik, American Fascism and the New Deal: The Associated Farmers of California and the Proto-Industrial Movement (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013); McWilliams, Factories in the Field, 230.
81. Carey McWilliams, “California Pastoral,” Antioch Review 2, no. 1 (March 1942): 103–21.
82. Galarza, Farm Workers and Agri-Business in California, 363; Galarza, Merchants of Labor, 38–40. On agricultural subsidies in Mississippi, see James Cobb, The Most Southern Place on Earth: The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 193–97; Pete Daniel, Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures Since 1880 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
83. Carey McWilliams, Ill Fares the Land: Migrants and Migratory Labor in the United States (New York: Little, Brown, 1942), 27.
84. Ibid., 260.
85. “Unemployment Means Government Needs to Do Something,” Afro-American, March 15, 1930.
86. “Hoover, the Bankers, Change System Time,” Afro-American, October 17, 1931.
87. “Strike,” Gaffney (SC) Ledger, August 29, 1933.
88. “Bagging Mill Shut as Women Strike,” Charleston (SC) News and Courier, August 27, 1933. The Daily Worker placed the strikers in the wrong state, but it provided sympathetic coverage of the strike. See “800 Negro Workers Strike for More Pay in Charleston, N.C [sic],” Daily Worker, September 5, 1933.
