by Paul Ortiz
89. “Spirit of Jungle Animates Negroes,” Asheville (NC) Advocate, September 8, 1933, in The Tuskegee Institute News Clippings File, ed. John W. Kitchens, on microfilm (Tuskegee, AL: Tuskegee Institute, 1978), reel 44, frame 634.
90. “Mill Head Goes to Code Meeting,” Charleston News and Courier, August 28, 1933.
91. Barton Bernstein, Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History (New York: Pantheon, 1968), 268.
92. “Bagging Factory to Open Tuesday,” Charleston News and Courier, September 4, 1933.
93. On the rise of the CIO, see Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Bruce Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Staughton Lynd, We Are All Leaders: The Alternative Unionism of the Early 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996); Janet Irons, Testing the New Deal: The General Textile Strike of 1934 in the American South (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000).
94. “Negroes on Edisto Look for Big Money,” Charleston News and Courier, August 28, 1933. For an introduction to domestic work in this era, see Phyllis Palmer, Domesticity and Dirt: Housewives and Domestic Servants in the United States, 1920–1945 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990).
95. “Seek ‘New Deal’ Wages,” Charleston News and Courier, September 3, 1933.
96. Myrna Fichtenbaum, The Funsten Nut Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1991). On Philadelphia, see “Strike,” Baltimore Afro-American, August 19, 1933. On Birmingham, see Paul Ortiz, “The Last Shall Be First: Black Workers, Civil Rights, and the Birmingham Spring of 1934,” Works in Progress, March 1995; “In Birmingham,” Afro-American, March 10, 1934.
97. “Domestic Strikes in Alabama,” Twin City Herald (Minneapolis), March 10, 1934.
98. “Farm Worker Strike in NJ Tear Gassed,” Afro-American, July 14, 1934; “Day by Day,” Afro-American, July 21, 1934.
99. Gerda Lerner, ed., Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), 269–70. For the history of FTA Local 22, see Robert Korstad, Civil Rights Unionism: Tobacco Workers and the Struggle for Democracy in the Mid-Twentieth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
100. “J. C. Long Speaks for Higher Taxes,” Charleston News and Courier, August 31, 1933.
101. “Higher Prices Mean an Increase in My Salary,” Charleston News and Courier, August 26, 1933.
102. “Negroes on Edisto Look for Big Money.”
103. “N.R.A. Wage Scale Will Nullify Government Aim for Jobs in the South,” Charleston News and Courier, September 10, 1933.
104. On the exclusion of African American workers from New Deal provisions, Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 53–79. For the marginalization of Southern white workers, see Irons, Testing the New Deal.
105. Paul Ortiz, “Segregation and Black Labor Before the CIO,” Against the Current 138 (January–February 2009), https://www.solidarity-us.org/node/2035 (accessed July 10, 2015).
106. “Police Disperse Bag Mill Crowd,” Charleston News and Courier, August 29, 1933; “600 Resume Bag Mill Jobs Today,” Charleston News and Courier, September 5, 1933.
107. “City Drops Work to Mark Hot but Quiet Labor Day,” Charleston News and Courier, September 5, 1933.
108. “Colorful Labor Day Parade of Local Negroes Cancelled,” Charleston News and Courier, September 3, 1933; Mamie Garvin Fields with Karen Fields, Lemon Swamp and Other Places: A Carolina Memoir (New York: Free Press, 1985), 29–30.
109. “City Drops Work.”
110. “Parade 20 Miles Long,” Charleston News and Courier, August 31, 1933.
111. Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930–1950 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1987).
112. See Nancy A. Hewitt, Southern Discomfort: Women’s Activism in Tampa, Florida, 1880s–1920s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Vicki L. Ruiz, “Luisa Moreno and Latina Labor Activism,” in Latina Legacies: Identity, Biography, and Community, ed. Vicki L. Ruiz and Virginia Sánchez Korrol (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 175–92.
113. “Luisa Moreno’s 1949 Address to California CIO,” Kenneth Burt’s Latino History Blog, http://kennethburt.com/blog/?p=754 (accessed July 3, 2016); “Conference Discusses Negro Workers’ Future,” California Eagle, April 26, 1945.
114. Leon Alexander, interviewed by Paul Ortiz, June 21, 1994, Behind the Veil.
115. Francisco Arturo Rosales and Daniel T. Simon, “Mexican Immigrant Experience in the Urban Midwest: East Chicago, Indiana, 1919–1945,” Indiana Magazine of History 77, no. 4 (1981), http://josotl.indiana.edu/index.php/imh/article/view/10337/14385 (accessed May 10, 2017).
116. Vargas, Labor Rights Are Civil Rights, 3–4; Francisco Arturo Rosales, Chicano! The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1996), 122.
117. Francisco Arturo Rosales, Testimonio: A Documentary History of the Mexican-American Struggle for Civil Rights (Houston: Arte Público Press, 2000), 252
118. Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest, 141–43.
119. Leroy Boyd, interviewed by Paul Ortiz, June 19, 1995, Behind the Veil.
120. Earl B. Brown, interviewed by Paul Ortiz, June 28, 1994, Behind the Veil.
121. Ralph Thompson, interviewed by Paul Ortiz, July 7, 1995, Behind the Veil. On the persistence of racism in unions, see Herbert Hill, The AFL-CIO and the Black Worker: Twenty-Five Years After the Merger (Louisville, KY: National Association of Human Rights Workers, 1982); Herbert Hill, Black Labor and the American Legal System: Race, Work, and the Law (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Bruce Nelson, Divided We Stand: American Workers and the Struggle for Black Equality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
122. William P. Jones, The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013), 1–40.
123. Brecher, Strike!, 237–47; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994).
124. Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor’s War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982); James A. Gross, Broken Promise: The Subversion of U.S. Labor Relations Policy, 1947–1994 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995); James A. Gross, The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board: National Labor Policy in Transition, 1937–1947 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Tomlins, The State and the Unions.
125. Acuña, Occupied America, 261. See also Ernesto Galarza, Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story (Santa Barbara, CA: McNally-Loftin, 1972), and Deborah Cohen, Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United States and Mexico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013). The historian Erin Conlin notes that Florida’s employers could rely on the state to provide them with a large pool of Puerto Rican and Bahamian workers. See Conlin, “Invisible Hands in the Winter Garden: Power, Politics, and Florida’s Bahamian Farmworkers in the Twentieth Century,” PhD diss., University of Florida, 2014.
126. Michael Honey, Black Workers Remember: An Oral History of Segregation, Unionism, and the Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 181.
127. Jefferson Cowie, Capital Moves: RCA’s Seventy-Year Quest for Cheap Labor (1999; New York: New Press, 2001).
128. Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2013), 156–94; Austin P. Morris, “Agricultural Labor and National Labor Legislation,” California Law Review 54, no. 5 (December 1966): 1939–89; Phyllis Palmer, “Outside the Law: Agricultural and Domestic Workers Under the Fair Labor Standards Act,” Journal of Policy History 7 (1995): 416–40; Kat
znelson, When Affirmative Action Was White. See Crespino, Strom Thurmond’s America, for the rise of Sunbelt conservatism after World War II.
CHAPTER 7: EMANCIPATORY INTERNATIONALISM VS. THE AMERICAN CENTURY
1. Final Act of the Inter-American Conference on Problems in War and Peace: Mexico City, February–March, 1945 (Washington, DC: Pan American Union, 1945), 16. For coverage of the conference, see “Dispute Is Put Off as Inter-American Conference Opened in Mexico City,” New York Times, February 22, 1945; “Americas Form Peace Alliance,” St. Petersburg Times, March 4, 1945; “Chapultepec Act Heralds Democracy in the Americas,” Norfolk Journal and Guide, March 24, 1945. On efforts to enhance inter-American cooperation during the war years, see Darlene J. Sadlier, Americans All: Good Neighbor Cultural Diplomacy in World War II (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012), and Thomas A. Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas,” Journal of American History 92, no. 4 (March 2006): 1212–37.
2. Final Act of the Inter-American Conference, 16.
3. “Conspicuous Daily Visitor,” New York Times, February 25, 1945.
4. “The Crux of the Disagreement,” New York Times, March 10, 1945.
5. “Americas Form Peace Alliance, Sanction Force,” St. Petersburg Times, March 4, 1945. The New York Times was also hopeful that the conference would lead to a “new Monroe Act.” See “Contradiction Seen in Hemisphere Pact,” New York Times, March 7, 1945; “Delegates in Dilemma at Mexico Conference: Failure to Provide Means for Guarding Hemisphere Security Debated,” New York Times, March 4, 1945.
6. “Haiti Demands Smashing of Color Barriers: For Inter-American Unity,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 10, 1945.
7. “Foes Label Him ‘A Negro’: Mexico’s Padilla Warns U.S. That Race Hatred Must End,” Cleveland Call and Post, March 31, 1945; “Bias Ban Approved at Mexico Parley,” New York Times, March 7, 1945; “Inter-American Conference Hailed but Argentina Recuses Equality of Nations Assured Under Latin-American Pact,” Baltimore Afro-American, March 24, 1945.
8. “Inter-American Conference in Mexico City Hailed,” Amsterdam News, March 17, 1945.
9. “Inter American Conference Should Serve as a Model for US,” Norfolk Journal and Guide, March 31, 1945; Final Act of the Inter-American Conference, 80.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid. See also “Praises Inter-American Conference,” Norfolk Journal and Guide, April 14, 1945.
12. Josef L. Kunz, “The Inter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace at Mexico City and the Problem of the Reorganization of the Inter-American System,” American Journal of International Law 39, no. 3 (July 1945): 527–33.
13. “No Jim Crow Among Nations,” Cleveland Call and Post, March 31, 1945.
14. Ibid.
15. Philippa Strum, Mendez v. Westminster: School Desegregation and Mexican-American Rights (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010); Gilbert G. González, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1990); Richard R. Valencia, Chicano Students and the Courts: The Mexican American Legal Struggle for Educational Equity (New York: New York University Press, 2008).
16. “Separate School Law Violates Constitution,” Baltimore Afro-American, December 14, 1946.
17. “Racial Problem Is Social, Says Reid,” Atlanta Daily World, March 29, 1945.
18. “Chapultepec Declaration Impact on US Racism, FEPC Aid to US Latin Relations Says Senator,” Baltimore Afro-American, March 17, 1945; “Schwellenback, Stassen Rap FEPC Filibusterers,” Baltimore Afro-American, February 2, 1946; “Chavez to Ask Permanent FEPC at Demo Parley,” Plain Dealer (Kansas City), July 7, 1944.
19. “National Council Calls on Local Help [in] Fight for Permanent FEPC,” Arkansas State Press, January 25, 1946; “Chavez Challenges Bilbo Stadium Plan, Reminds of FEPC,” Chicago Defender, November 10, 1945.
20. “Ghetto Housing Keeps Race Problem Boiling,” Amsterdam News, July 27, 1946. See also Jeffrey D. Gonda, Unjust Deeds: The Restrictive Covenant Cases and the Making of the Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).
21. “‘Racism Must Go,’ High Court Told by Houston,” Baltimore Afro-American, January 24, 1948.
22. “Cloture Flunks; FEPC Pushed Aside,” Los Angeles Tribune, February 16, 1946.
23. Harold Preece, “The Klan Declares War,” New Masses, October 16, 1945, http://www.unz.org/Pub/NewMasses-1945oct16-00003.
24. Michael Anderson, “Lorraine Hansberry’s Freedom Family,” American Communist History 7, no. 2 (2008): 268–69.
25. Greg Grandin, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War, rev. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011); Rigoberta Menchu, I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman in Guatemala, ed. Elisabeth Burgos-Debray, trans. by Ann Wright (1984; London: Verso, 2009); Ariel Dorfman, Feeding on Dreams: Confessions of an Unrepentant Exile (New York: Mariner Books, 2011); Colby, The Business of Empire.
26. Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 15.
27. “The World,” New York Times, June 13, 1954.
28. “U.S. Aid to Grow,” New York Times, June 3, 1954.
29. Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (2006; New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2010), 42–43.
30. Ibid. See also La Feber, Inevitable Revolutions, 113–27; Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 2011), 135–43.
31. Scholars have demonstrated that mainstream African American organizations acquiesced to Cold War policies in the 1950s in the hope that compliance might encourage the federal government to take a pro–civil rights stance. It is unlikely, however, that the NAACP’s or Urban League’s decision to support US foreign policy in the Global South would have enough weight to uproot a centuries-long tradition of Black internationalism at the grassroots. See Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Penny M. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).
32. “The Aggrandizing US,” Pittsburgh Courier, letter to the editor, March 26, 1955.
33. Ralph Matthews, “Yes, We Have No Bananas,” Cleveland Call and Post, July 3, 1954.
34. Ibid.
35. Cited in Randi Gill-Sadler, “Diasporic Dissonance: Black Women’s Literature, U.S. Imperialism and the Black Diaspora,” PhD diss., University of Florida, 2017, 10.
36. Martin Luther King Jr., Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community? (Boston: Beacon Press, 1967), 4–5.
37. Ibid., 186.
38. Ernesto Galarza, Herman Gallegos, and Julian Samora, Mexican Americans in the Southwest (Santa Barbara, CA: McNally & Loftin, 1970), 61.
39. On the federal government’s role in supplying Florida with workers, see Conlin, “Invisible Hands in the Winter Garden”; Cindy Hahamovitch, No Man’s Land: Jamaican Guestworkers in America and the Global History of Deportable Labor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Cohen, Braceros. Julie Weise notes that Mexican farmworkers could sometimes turn to the Mexican consulate for assistance in battling racism and labor exploitation but that over time, even this support dwindled. Weise, Corazón de Dixie: Mexicanos in the U.S. South Since 1910.
40. Galarza, Gallegos, and Samora, Mexican-Americans in the Southwest, 59.
41. Ibid.
42. Fred Ross, Conquering Goliath: Cesar Chavez and the Beginning (Keene, CA: El Taller Grafico Press, 1989), 24.
43. Ibid., 24; Chavez, “Huelga!”
44. Susan Ferriss and Ricardo Sandoval, The Fight in the Fields: Cesar Chavez and the Farmworkers Movement, ed. Diana Hembree (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1997), 11–12.
45. Somini Sengupta, “A Duty to Fight,” Los Angeles Times, Au
gust 4, 1992.
46. David Bacon, “The Death of Pete Velasco,” San Francisco Examiner, December 9, 1995.
47. On the history of the United Farm Workers, see Jacque E. Levy, Cesar Chavez: Autobiography of La Causa (1975; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007). Critical works include Randy Shaw, Beyond the Field: Cesar Chavez, the UFW, and the Struggle for Justice in the 21st Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); Matthew Garcia, From the Jaws of Victory: The Triumph and Tragedy of Cesar Chavez and the Farm Worker Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Frank Bardacke, Trampling Out the Vintage: Cesar Chavez and the Two Souls of the United Farm Workers (London: Verso, 2012).
48. “Huelga Wins One,” Basta Ya! (San Francisco), August 1970.
49. “Four Negro Groups Support Grape Strike,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 1, 1966.
50. “Demonstration on November 26, 1968, by United Farm Workers Organizing Committee, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,” in FBI Files on Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers, microfilm publication (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Sources, n.d.), file 100–444762, frames 757–58.
51. Afro-American, letter to the editor, November 30, 1968.
52. “Slavery Is Grape War Cry,” Pittsburgh Courier, December 14, 1968.
53. Sam Kushner, Long Road to Delano (New York: International Publishers, 1975), 164.
54. Martin Luther King Jr., Why We Can’t Wait (1963; New York: Mentor Books, 1964), 24.
55. Jim Harrington, “Filosofia del Boicoteo,” El Campesino, November 5, 1973.
56. Robert Gordon, “Poisons in the Fields: The United Farm Workers, Pesticides, and Environmental Politics,” Pacific Historical Review 68 (February 1999): 51.
57. Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (1958; Boston: Beacon Press, 2010), 73.
58. This analysis is based on Jones, The March on Washington. See also William P. Jones, “The Forgotten Radical History of the March on Washington,” Dissent (Spring 2013), https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/the-forgotten-radical-history-of-the-march-on-washington.
