by Paul Ortiz
120. Vijay Prashad, “Powder Keg: the Rage in Urban America,” Counterpunch, September 2, 2016, http://www.counterpunch.org/2016/09/02/powder-keg-the-rage-in-urban-america/.
121. James Brown and Vanessa Brown, interviewed by Paul Ortiz, December 10, 2016, SPOHP.
EPILOGUE: A NEW ORIGIN NARRATIVE OF AMERICAN HISTORY
1. Carlos Fuentes, “Land of Jekyll and Hyde,” Nation, March 22, 1986, 337.
2. King, “Beyond Vietnam.”
3. “Discurso de Evo Morales al asumir la presidencia de Bolivia,” January 22, 2006, http://www.democraciasur.com/documentos/BoliviaEvoMoralesAsuncionPres.htm (accessed August 22, 2015).
4. For a discussion of the Black Workers for Justice and Farm Labor Organizing Committee’s “Juneteenth” commemoration, see chapter 8.
5. William Darity Jr., “Forty Acres and a Mule in the 21st Century,” Social Science Quarterly 89, no. 3 (September 2008): 656–64; William Darity Jr. and Dania Frank, “The Economics of Reparations,” American Economic Review 93, no. 2 (May 2003): 326–29; William Darity Jr. and Samuel L. Myers Jr., Persistent Disparity: Race and Economic Inequality in the United States Since 1945 (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1998).
6. Darrick Hamilton and William Darity Jr., “Can ‘Baby Bonds’ Eliminate the Racial Wealth Gap in Putative Post-Racial America?,” Review of Black Political Economy 37 (2010): 215.
7. Lake Research Partners, Hunger in America’s Classrooms: Share Our Strength’s Teachers Report (Washington, DC: Share Our Strength, 2013), 3; Yang Jiang, Maribel R. Granja, and Heather Koball, Basic Facts About Low-Income Children: Children Under 3 Years, 2015 (New York: National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia University School of Public Health, 2017), 1.
8. Martinez, De Colores Means All of Us, 48.
INDEX
Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.
Act of Chapultepec. See Chapultepec Conference
Acuña, Rodolfo, 141
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., 92
Adams, John, 30
Adams, John Quincy, 36–38, 43–44
Adams-Onis Treaty, 39
African Americans: activist traditions, 13–14, 36–38, 43, 81–82, 106–7, 114–15, 244n31; discrimination against/suppression of, 18, 54, 58–59, 84, 128–29; 215n3; and the election of Obama, 177; financial racism/poverty, 56, 123, 125–26, 130–31, 151, 169; and Latinx heritage, 161; leadership role of women, 221n29; and Mexican independence, 45, 97; post–Civil War gains, 89–90; “quasi-free Blacks,” 205n72; role in Northern success during Civil War, 66–67, 69–70, 186; terms used to refer to, 9–10; understandings of emancipatory internationalism/ racial capitalism, 40, 63, 72–73, 80, 87–88, 103–6, 113–14, 200n12, 206–7n87, 228n27. Seealso antislavery activism and resistance; civil rights movement; Jim Crow/Juan Crow segregation; Ku Klux Klan; labor organizing/ unions; mass incarceration; slavery/ enslaved people
African Communities League. See Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League
African Methodist Episcopal Church. See Christian Recorder
“The African Roots of War” (Du Bois), 103
African Slavery in America (Paine), 15
Afro-American (Baltimore): demands for public relief during the Great Depression, 133; on Hoover’s imperialist policies, 115–16; on size of urban slums, 126–27; tribute to Máximo Gómez, 30; on US investments in the Global South, 111
Afro-Mexicans, 10
agribusiness: and the Associated Farmers of California, 133; and the Bracero Program, 141; and farm consolidation, 235n19; “guest worker” programs, 151–52; and theft of African American–owned farmland, 236n36 agricultural workers: disenfranchisement and impoverishment of, 57; exclusion from New Deal protections, 141–42; exploitation and terrorizing of, 5, 120–22, 131–32, 153; Mexican, support from Mexican consulate, 245n39; organizing/ unionizing by, 9, 132, 152–55, 162, 164, 172, 235n19. See also Chávez, César; Huerta, Dolores; labor organizing/unions; the National Farm Workers’ Association (NFWA); United Farm Workers
Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), 153
Alexander, Leon, 138–39
Allen, Richard, 27, 51
Amaru, Tupac, II (José Noguera), 12
“America First” construct, 1. See also American Century; neoliberalism
American Anti-Imperialist League, 113
American Anti-Slavery Society, 48, 72
American Century, 146–47
American exceptionalism: as myth, 7–8, 185–86; and need for a new origin narrative, 7; viewing history multiple perspectives, 187–89. See also slavery/ enslaved people
American Federation of Labor, 132
American Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, 84
American Jewish Congress, brief in Méndez v. Westminster, 147
American Revolution: emancipation petitions by African Americans, 18; Morelos’s referencing of, as model, 34–35; and the preservation of slavery, 12, 14–21, 61–62; role of African Americans in the military, 14–17
American Social History Project, 120
Amsterdam News: coverage of US efforts to undermine the Chapultepec Conference, 145; support for Sandino in, 114
Anderson, Benedict, 206–7n87
Anderson, Carol, 167
anti-apartheid movement, 161
anti-Mexican Vagrancy Law (“Greaser Act”), 57
antislavery activism and resistance: by African Americans in the North, 26–30, 52, 59; as common, 202–3n36; diverse approaches to, 24–27, 61; and J. Q. Adams’s view of Latin American rebellions as, 37; by Native Americans, Indigenous peoples, 13, 36–38, 43–45; participation of in the Mexican War for Independence, 34; revolts and rebellions, 21–22, 49; role of slaves in success of the Northern armies, 66–67, 69–70, 186; runaways, escapees, 13–15, 18, 25–26, 40, 48–49, 60–61; and the Underground Railroad, 27, 40, 43, 49, 60; See also racial capitalism; slavery/ enslaved people
Anti-Slavery Standard, on celebrations of emancipation in Key West, 86
Árbenz, Jacobo, 149–50
Arizona, legalized racism in, 180–81, 216n25
Arkansas, violence against African American workers in, 131
Arredondo, Gabriela F., 120
Artrell, William, 88
Asian Americans, 177–78
Associated Farmers of California (AFC), 133
Attucks, Crispus, 17
Bacon, David, 179
Bahamas: low-wage workers from, 242n125; Underground Railroad line, 43
Baltimore, Maryland: efforts on behalf of Cuban liberation, 78–80; punishment of free Blacks in, 25, 206n78; slavery and the slave trade in, 22–24; Underground Railroad in, 24; vagrancy statutes, 206n78
Banks, Nathaniel P., 83
banks, US, role in racial imperialism, 103–5, 115
Barber, William, II, 183
Barrera, Mario, 125–26
Bastidas, Micaela, 12
Bates, Daisy and L. C., 148
Beckert, Sven, 207n96
Benitez, Lucas, 170
Benson, Genevieve Payne, 60
Bilbo, Theodore, 148
Black Lives Matter activism, 183
Black Panthers, 159–60
Black Republican (New Orleans), demand for global scope to Reconstruction, 74–75
Black Seminoles, 60. See also Seminole Wars
Blaine, John J., 104–5
Bolívar, Simón, 14, 28, 80, 109, 116
Bolivia: Morales’s leadership of, 187; US economic exploitation of, 114
Border Odyssey: Travels Along the U.S./Mexico Divide (Thompson), 2
Border Protection, Anti-Terrorism, and Illegal Immigration Act, 170
Bowser, William, 22
Boyd, Leroy, 140–41
Bracero Program, 141, 152–53
Bradford, Richard H., 83
Brent, William, 40–41
British West Indies, emancipation in, 40, 43
Brodess, Eliza Ann, 24
“broken
windows” policing, 180
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Maids, 147
Brown, Earl, 140
Brown, Edmund, 157–58
Brown, James, 184
Browne, Junius, 67
Burch, J. Henri, 81–82
Burciaga, Jose, 122
Burns, Anthony, 61
“Bury Me in a Free Land” (Watkins), 29
California: anti-Mexican Vagrancy Law, 57; contempt for slavery in, 50; Fifteenth Amendment celebrations, 220n9; “foreign miner’s tax,” 57; state-sanctioned discrimination in, 57–58. See also agribusiness; agricultural workers; Mexican Americans
Calleja, Félix María, 34
“Call to Rebellion” (Garnet), 45–46
Camarillo, Albert, 58
Camp, Jordan, 167
Canada: Underground Railroad in, 49; White’s escape to, 63–64
cannery workers, 138
Canty, Hattie, 182
capitalism. See corporations/corporate imperialism
Caribbean peoples/workers. See specific Caribbean nations
Carleton, Guy, 19
Carnegie, Andrew, 225–26n95
Case Farm strike, North Carolina, 172
Cash, Bob, 164
Central America, US imperialism in, 105, 107–8, 185–86. See also Latin America; Mexico; and specific Central American nations
Central Park Five, 169
Césaire, Aimé, 10
Chapultepec Conference: Act of Chapultepec, 145–48; Haitian resolution against discrimination, 144; purposes, 143–44; US government perspective on, 143–45
Charleston, South Carolina: Charleston Bagging and Manufacturing Company strike, 134–35, 137; Vesey’s insurrectionary plot, 21–22
Chase, Charlotte, 154
Chateau Ste. Michelle vineyard, 162, 164
Chávez, César, 152–54
Chavez, Dennis, 147
Chicago Defender: on Latin-American ethnology, 1–2; on US corporate control over Puerto Rico, 101–2
Chicano, use of term, 9
“A Chicano in Philadelphia” (Romero), 7
Chinese people: discrimination/violence against immigrant workers, 57, 59, 92, 118, 121; and the Great American Strike, 173; in Key West, 86, 88–89; workers’ strikes, newspaper coverage, 109
Christian Recorder (AME Church): on the Cuban revolution, 6; on expansion of liberty, 72; explanation for the coming of the Civil War, 63; on Mexican resistance to the French invasion, 64–65; opposition to disbanding the American Anti-Slavery Society, 72
Cigar Makers International Union, 224n70
civil rights movement: and Black Lives Matter activism, 183; importance of Act of Chapultepec, 148; Rainbow Coalitions, 159–60; support for grape boycott, 154
Civil War: Black troops and spies, 66; and celebration of emancipation in Key West, 86; emancipatory internationalism following, 71–74; importance of African Americans to Northern success, 66–67, 69; importance of exodus of slaves from plantations, 68–69; and Mexican struggles against the French, 48, 64–66; origins for, Douglass’s understanding, 2–3; Southern efforts to recruit slaves as soldiers, 219n65
class conflict: paternalist and scientific rationales for, 119; as tool for insuring cheap labor, 58, 118
Clements, George P., 123
Coalition of Immokalee Workers, 170
Coker, Daniel, 27
Colombia: abolition of slavery in, 29–30; US exploitation of workers in, 114
colonialism/US imperialism: and the exploitation of people of color, 94; and focus on power of Wall Street and US banks, 115; interconnections with racism/Jim Crow laws, 232n79; in Latin America, 103–5, 107–8, 170, 185–86; role of US banks, 103–5, 115; slavery as form of, 3. See also corporations/corporate imperialism; specific Latin American and Caribbean nations
Colored American: on blockade of Veracruz by US and France, 45; on importance of slavery to US government, 5; on Seminole Wars, 45
Colored Farmers Alliance, 91
Colored Labor Day, 137–38
Colored National Convention, New Orleans, 76
Communism, fear of: and anti-union rhetoric/actions, 137, 139, 141; as rationale for corporate imperialism, 149; as rationale for wage inequality, 150; the “Red Scare,” 128
Concepción, Gilberto, 101–2
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 138–39
Conlin, Erin, 242n125
Connally, Tom, 143–45
consumer boycotts, 154
Convention of Colored Men, Louisiana, 82
convict leasing/labor. See mass incarceration; vagrancy statutes
Coolidge, Calvin, 105–6
corporations/corporate imperialism: and the Act of Chapultepec, 146–47; and the Associated Farmers of California, 133; bailouts and awards of public monies, 168; and the consolidation of corporate power, 118–20; cotton production, 41–42; role of the military in sustaining, 103–5, 111–12, 5164; slavery/racial inequality as fundamental to, 31–32, 58. See also slavery/enslaved people
Costa Rica, US economic exploitation of, 114
Counter-Intelligence Program (COINTELPRO), 162
Cox, Oliver Cromwell: on the authoritarian nature of agribusiness, 121–22; on race prejudice, 132; on the racial inequality inherent corporate capitalism, 58
Coy, Ed, 95
craft unions, 126
Crania Americana (Morton), 59
Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 10–11
Crisis (NAACP): “The African Roots of War,” 103; exposé of the US occupation of Haiti, 111
Cuba: Cuba nationalist movement, 220n19, 228n27; fears of US invasion, 99–101; markers of self-identity in, 9; slave trade in, 39; US control over, 113; US efforts to extend slavery into, 207–8n99
Cuban Anti-Slavery Committee: Garnet’s address at, 77–78; meeting with Grant, 82–83; offices and organizing activities, 78–79; role of women, 221n29; strategy expansion, 81; support for “white” Cuban rebels, 84–85
Cuban Junta: activities in the US, 81–82; diversity of opinions in, 221n16; informational publications, 77
Cuban solidarity movement: and African American abolition/Reconstruction efforts, 73–75, 81–82; early activities related to, 75–76; and Fifteenth Amendment celebrations, 220n9; larger purpose, recognition of by African Americans, 80; rapid expansion of in the US, 80–81; response to death of General Maceó, 97–98; resurgence of in Key West, Florida, 86–87; significant features of, 84–85
Cuban War for Liberation: as anticolonial insurrection, 30; and emancipation struggles, 49–50, 66; and the murder of General Maceó, 96–97; role of women, 99; and US government support for Spain, 83
Culinary Workers Union Local 226 (Las Vegas, Nevada), 181–82
Daniels, Josephus, 103
Darity, William, 188
Dawes Act, 121
Dean, James, 88, 91
Decatur (slave ship), 22
Declaration of Independence, third draft, 15
Delany, Martin, 47, 50
delousing procedures, protests against, 122
Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), 164
deportation: and immigration restrictions, as form of labor control, 123, 153, 179; of Mexican and Mexican-American workers, 132, 141; as punishment for earning higher wages, 179; as response to efforts to unionize, 119. See also DREAM activists/Dream Defenders
Derrick, W.B., 72
Deslondes, Charles, 21
Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 21
Díaz, Junot, 9
Diaz, Sonja Marie, 173
Dillard, C., 97
domestic workers: exclusion from New Deal protections, 142; strikes and actions by, 122, 135, 136
Dominican Republic: markers of self-identity in, 9; US invasion and occupation, 9, 103, 114, 143
Douglass, Frederick: on antislavery efforts following the Civil War, 72, 186; on emancipation in the British West Indies, 40; experience of slavery in Baltimore, 22–23; on the Haitian Revolution, 30; on; on the importance of exodus of slaves from plant
ations, 68–69; on the invasion of Mexico, 46–48; on origins of the Civil War, 2–4; understanding of emancipatory internationalism, 52; understanding of market value as slave, 51
Down These Mean Streets (Thomas), 160–61
Drayton, William, 14
DREAM activists/Dream Defenders, 182–83
Dubois, Laurent, 207n93
Du Bois, W. E. B.: “The African Roots of War,” 103; on disenfranchisement of workers, 120; on exodus of slaves from plantations, 68–69; The Gift of Black Folk, 114–15; and the Niagara Movement, 102; on Reconstruction and its subsequent defeat, 94, 104; on white response to success by Black farmers, 123
Dunmore, Lord, 14–15
Dupont, Charles F., 88, 224n73
Durazo, María Elena, 174–75
Durham, North Carolina, Hayti community, 204n49
Eastland, James Oliver, 148
Elaine, Arkansas, massacre, 131
El Clamor Público (Los Angeles): anti-filibuster articles, 50; pre–Civil War challenges to slavery/white supremacy, 56; on US conception of freedom, 5
Electoral College, 19
Elevator (San Francisco), on the Cuban struggle, 80
el gran paro Estadounidense. See Great American Strike
El Jornalero (Key West), 87
Elliot, Robert, 75–76
El Malcriado (UFWOC): educational workshops, 11; on King assassination, 4–5
emancipatory internationalism: and the American Civil War, 71–72; Douglass’s promotion of, 46–47; and expanded multiracial understandings, 160–62; Garnet’s promotion of, 77–78; and the Great American Strike, 172–73; and international antislavery/freedom struggles, 20–21, 39–40, 105, 115–17; Morelos’s vision, 34–36; reflections of in the African American press, 27–31, 40, 108–11, 232n79; and resistance to racial capitalism, 112–13; roots and characteristics, 6–7, 13–14, 102. See also specific Caribbean and Latin American nations
Equal Justice Initiative, 180
Equator (Key West), 87
Erving, George William, 37–38
Espionage and Sedition Acts of 1917–1918, 128
Factories in the Field (McWilliams), 132
Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC), 140–41, 147–48
Farmer, James, 154
Farm Labor Organizing Committee (FLOC), 162, 171
farmworkers. See agricultural workers
