The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt

by Toby Wilkinson

  The definitive study of Middle Kingdom coffins and the origins of the Coffin Texts is Harco Willems, Chests of Life. John Taylor, Egyptian Coffins, provides a useful and accessible summary; Death and the Afterlife by the same author offers a comprehensive introduction to all aspects of ancient Egyptian funerary beliefs, customs, and artifacts. The best translation and commentary on The Book of Two Ways is Leonard Lesko’s The Ancient Egyptian Book of Two Ways. Other useful discussions of this book and the other Coffin Texts include Stephen Quirke, Ancient Egyptian Religion; Leonard Lesko, “Coffin Texts”; and Harco Willems, “The Social and Ritual Context of a Mortuary Liturgy.” Richard Parkinson, Voices from Ancient Egypt, includes some extracts from the Coffin Texts in a modern English translation, while Adriaan de Buck, The Egyptian Coffin Texts, is the definitive hieroglyphic edition.

  The nature of the ba is discussed most thoroughly in Louis Žabkar, A Study of the Ba Concept, while the evidence is usefully summarized by James Allen, “Ba.”

  For the cult of Osiris, John Gwyn Griffiths’s article “Osiris” is of key importance, presenting the results of a lifetime’s scholarship. Richard Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses (pp. 118–123), offers an overview of Osiris’s iconography, origins, and worship. Geraldine Pinch, Egyptian Myth, gives a brief but original interpretation of the Osiris myth. The Osiris mysteries at Abdju are discussed at some length in Toby Wilkinson, Lives of the Ancient Egyptians (no. 34), and Osirian festivals elsewhere in Egypt are discussed in Harco Willems, “The Social and Ritual Context of a Mortuary Liturgy.” William Kelly Simpson, The Terrace of the Great God, is the most comprehensive publication of the Middle Kingdom funerary monuments lining the sacred way at Abdju. Erik Hornung, “Some Remarks on the Inhabitants of the West,” dates the mortuary focus on the underworld to the reign of Senusret II, as reflected in the winding passageways beneath the king’s pyramid at Lahun.

  The best recent investigation of regional and chronological differences in Middle Kingdom funerary customs is Janine Bourriau, “Patterns of Change.” Shabtis are discussed in most books on Egyptian burial practices, a reliable example being John Taylor, Death and the Afterlife. The evolution of the concept of a last judgment is brilliantly traced by Stephen Quirke, “Judgment of the Dead”; while Carol Andrews, Amulets, explains the significance of the heart scarab.

  1. Coffin Texts, Spell 467.

  2. Book of the Dead, Chapter 6.

  3. The Instruction for King Merikara, lines 55–57.

  4. Merer, funerary stela, line 7.

  5. Coffin Texts, Spell 452.

  6. Coffin Texts, Spell 338.

  7. Nebankh, heart scarab (translation by Stephen Quirke in Werner Forman and Stephen Quirke, Hieroglyphs and the Afterlife, p. 104).

  CHAPTER 8: THE FACE OF TYRANNY

  Although few syntheses of the Twelfth Dynasty have been published, the specialist literature on the period is extensive, and it is therefore necessary to return to these works and original sources. The inscriptions left by Mentuhotep IV’s expeditions to the Wadi Hammamat were published by J. Couyat and Pierre Montet, Les inscriptions hiéroglyphiques, although their translations are now out of date. The Eleventh Dynasty royal court was modeled on the court of a provincial governor, with a treasurer and steward taking prominence over other officials. See Wolfram Grajetski, The Middle Kingdom (especially pp. 21 and 90).

  For the end of the Eleventh Dynasty and possible reasons behind the apparent civil strife, see John Darnell, “The Route of Eleventh Dynasty Expansion into Nubia.” The Hatnub inscriptions, a key source for the internal politics of the early Twelfth Dynasty, were published by Rudolf Anthes, Die Felseninschriften von Hatnub, and have been carefully studied by Harco Willems, “The Nomarchs of the Hare Nome.” Further evidence for dissent at the same period is discussed by William Kelly Simpson, “Studies in the Twelfth Egyptian Dynasty.” Dorothea Arnold, “Amenemhat I” (p. 20), suggests that the location of Itj-tawy may have been chosen because it was within the “greater Memphite” capital zone, while affording easy access to the Fayum, an area that had begun to be developed in the early Twelfth Dynasty.

  The Horus names of Amenemhat I and his successors are analyzed by Ronald Leprohon, “The Programmatic Use of the Royal Titulary.” For Kay’s surveillance mission into the Western Desert, see Rudolf Anthes, “Eine Polizeistreife.” The important stela of Nesumontu, which alludes to an insurgency against the regime, is published in William Kelly Simpson, The Terrace of the Great God, plate 14, and discussed by Dorothea Arnold, “Amenemhat I” (pp. 18–19). For the inscription of Khnumhotep I from Beni Hasan, see Percy Newberry, Beni Hasan. Alan Schulman, “The Battle Scenes of the Middle Kingdom,” discusses the scenes of warfare from this and neighboring tombs.

  The results of recent excavations at the Twelfth Dynasty temple at Ipetsut are published by Guillaume Charloux, “The Middle Kingdom Temple of Amun at Karnak.” The construction of Amenemhat I’s pyramid is most usefully summarized in Mark Lehner, The Complete Pyramids (pp. 168–169). The pyramids of the last two Twelfth Dynasty rulers, Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu, have not been positively identified, but it is likely that each of the monarchs at least started work on a pyramid complex. For the frontier zone along the northeastern delta and the Walls of the Ruler, see Stephen Quirke, “Frontier or Border?”

  The inscriptions published by Zbyneˇk Žába, The Rock Inscriptions of Lower Nubia, constitute the primary evidence for local kings in lower Nubia at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty and for the Egyptian military response to their threat. Wolfram Grajetski, The Middle Kingdom (pp. 27–28 and 31), summarizes the current consensus. For the chronological position of the Nubian rulers and their relationship with Egypt, see Robert Morkot, The Black Pharaohs (pp. 54–55) and “Kingship and Kinship in the Empire of Kush.” If we are to believe Mentuhotep II’s claim to have annexed Wawat (lower Nubia) to Upper Egypt, then Egyptian control must have been lost again during the ineffective reigns of Mentuhotep’s two successors. The name of the Nubian king Intef raises the possibility that he was a direct descendant of the Egyptian Eleventh Dynasty, and as such was a focus of dissent for those opposed to Amenemhat’s usurpation of the throne. Barry Kemp, “Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period” (pp. 168–169), suggested that the Nubian inscriptions might date to the very end of the Middle Kingdom and represent quasi-autonomous rulers of Egyptian fortified towns abandoned by the central government, but a dating to the early Twelfth Dynasty makes best sense of the evidence.

  For the fortress of Buhen, see W. Bryan Emery, H. S. Smith, and A. Millard, The Fortress of Buhen, and Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization (pp. 231–235). Until its submergence under the waters of Lake Nasser, Buhen was extremely well preserved and stood comparison with the castles of the Middle Ages; its loss is one of the saddest in the annals of Egyptian archaeology. The forts of Ikkur and Quban, two of the earliest to be built by Senusret I, were deliberately located on either side of the Nile, at the entrance to the Wadi Allaqi. Not only did this wadi lead directly to the ore-rich mountains of the Eastern Desert, but it had also provided the main route for Nubian infiltration into Egypt in earlier periods. Economic exploitation and national security were two sides of the same coin. Stephen Quirke, “State and Labour in the Middle Kingdom,” discusses the nature of the “compound” attested in Middle Kingdom sources.

  Scholars in favor of a ten-year co-regency between Amenemhat I and his son include William Kelly Simpson, “The Single-Dated Monuments of Sesostris I”; Wolgang Helck, “Mitregenschaft”; William Murnane, Ancient Egyptian Coregencies (pp. 2–5 and 245–253); and Detlef Franke, “Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches.” Claude Obsomer has argued against this (though he is something of a lone voice) in “La date de Nésou-Montou” and Sésostris Ier. The description of Amenemhat I’s assassination is taken from the literary text The Instruction of Amenemhat I for His Son, most usefully translated by Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (vol. 1, pp. 135–13
9). Senusret I’s chosen Horus name, “[long] live the renaissance,” could not have expressed his intentions more clearly. See Ronald Leprohon, “The Programmatic Use of the Royal Titulary.”

  The classic discussion about propagandist literature in the Middle Kingdom is Georges Posener, Littérature et politique. Richard Parkinson, “Teachings, Discourses and Tales,” The Tale of Sinuhe and Other, and Voices from Ancient Egypt, provide important translations and commentaries on the key texts, as does Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (vol. 1). The dates of these propagandist texts are still subject to considerable debate. The Complaints of Khakheperraseneb cannot predate the reign of Senusret II (since Senusret’s throne name, Khakheperra, forms part of the name of the protagonist), and could well be a little later. The Admonitions of Ipuwer has been dated to the Thirteenth Dynasty, but this is by no means certain. For a full discussion of the texts and their likely dates, see Richard Parkinson, “Teachings, Discourses and Tales.”

  For the expedition to the oases under Senusret I, see Heinrich Schäfer, “Ein Zug nach der grossen Oase.” The inscriptions in the temple at Djerty/Tod describing civil unrest and Senusret I’s response are translated and discussed by Christophe Barbotin and Jacques Jean Clère, “L’inscription de Sésostris Ier à Tôd,” and Donald Redford, “The Tod Inscription of Senwosret I.” Senusret’s jubilee pavilion (the “white chapel”) at Ipetsut is published by Pierre Lacau and H. Chevrier, Une chapelle de Sésostris Ier à Karnak. For the first phase of Nubian fortresses, built in the reign of Senusret I, see Barry Kemp, “Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period” (pp. 130–131).

  The Djerty treasure was excavated and published by Fernand Bisson de la Roque et al., Le Trésor de Tôd. For translations and commentaries of the annals of Amenemhat II, and discussion of his foreign campaigns, see Sami Farag, “Une inscription Memphite”; Hartwig Altenmüller and Ahmed Moussa, “Die Inschrift Amenemhets II”; and Ezra Marcus, “Amenemhet II and the Sea.” The arguments for the identification of Iwa and Iasy as Ura and Cyprus, respectively, are adduced by Wolfgang Helck, “Ein Ausgreifen des Mittleren Reiches”; C. Eder, Die ägyptischen Motive (p. 191); Joachim Quack, “Kft3w and ’I3ssy”; and Kenneth Kitchen, “Some Thoughts on Egypt, the Aegean and Beyond.” The location of Ura directly opposite the northern tip of the island lends credence to the island’s identification as Cyprus. Louise Steel, “Egypt and the Mediterranean World,” provides an up-to-date summary of Middle Kingdom activity in the eastern Mediterranean. The best discussion of Kahun and Middle Kingdom town planning in general is Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization (pp. 211–221 and 221–231, respectively).

  For the end of the nomarchs under Senusret III, see Detlef Franke, “The Career of Khnumhotep III”; the tombs of viziers in the court cemetery have recently been published by Dieter Arnold, “Two New Mastabas of the Twelfth Dynasty.” In the case of Khnumhotep III, he left his province to become high steward and vizier—two of the highest offices in the land. Excavations are ongoing at Senusret III’s pyramid town at Abdju. For detailed archaeological reports, see Josef Wegner, “The Town of Wah-sut at South Abydos” and “Excavations at the Town,” with a convenient summary in “A Middle Kingdom Town at South Abydos.”

  The second cataract forts are brilliantly analyzed by Barry Kemp, “Large Middle Kingdom Granary Buildings” and Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization (pp. 236–242), and by Stuart Tyson Smith, “Askut and the Role of the Second Cataract Forts.” The relay stations were located at Uronarti, Shalfak, Askut, Mushid, Gemai, Mirgissa, and on the rock of Abu Sir. For the ideological and political factors behind their construction, see Kate Spence, “Royal Walling Projects.” Paul Smither, “The Semnah Despatches,” remains the only detailed publication of these essential documents. Recent discoveries relating to the kingdom of Kush have been reported by Thomas Maugh, “Ancient Kush Rivaled Egypt.” The Semna boundary stela is published in facsimile and translation by Richard Parkinson, Voices from Ancient Egypt (pp. 43–46).

  Janine Bourriau, Pharaohs and Mortals, and Felicitas Polz, “Die Bildnisse Sesostris’ III. und Amenemhets III,” discuss the distinctive royal sculpture of the later Twelfth Dynasty. The reign of Amenemhat III is conveniently summarized by Gae Callender, “The Middle Kingdom Renaissance.” Manfred Bietak, “Egypt and the Levant,” discusses the evolving relationship between Egypt and Kebny, and the role of Asiatics in the Sinai mining expeditions. The invention of an alphabetic script by Asiatic patrolmen in Egyptian service is published by John Darnell et al., Two Early Alphabetic Inscriptions, and G. J. Hamilton, The Origins of the West Semitic Alphabet, and summarized by John Darnell, “The Deserts.”

  For the brief reigns of Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu and their relationship with Amenemhat III, see Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families (p. 95).

  1. Mentuhotep IV, Wadi Hammamat inscription, lines 10–11.

  2. Hatnub inscriptions, no. 24, lines 7–8.

  3. Kay, funerary stela, lines 4–5.

  4. Khnumhotep I, biographical inscription, line 5.

  5. The Instruction of Amenemhat I for His Son, section III.

  6. Intefiqer, Wadi el-Girgawi inscription, lines 6–11.

  7. The Instruction of Amenemhat I for His Son, sections I–II.

  8. The Prophecies of Neferti, lines 57–67.

  9. The Tale of Sinuhe, lines 165–168.

  10. The Loyalist Instruction, section 2, lines 1–6.

  11. Dediqu, stela inscription, lines 6–7.

  12. Cycle of Hymns to Senusret III, lines 16–21.

  13. Semna Dispatch from Serra East (translation by Paul Smither, “The Semnah Despatches,” no. 4).

  14. Senusret III, Semna stela, line 10.

  15. Ibid., lines 14–16.

  16. Ibid., lines 20–21.

  CHAPTER 9: BITTER HARVEST

  The most comprehensive recent study of the Second Intermediate Period is Kim Ryholt’s magisterial The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period. However, many of his conclusions, notably the date of the Fourteenth Dynasty secession, are not yet widely accepted. The more conventional chronology, as presented, for example, by Janine Bourriau, “The Second Intermediate Period,” Detlef Franke, “The Late Middle Kingdom,” and David O’Connor, “The Hyksos Period,” is followed here. Despite the arguments of Detlef Franke to the contrary, Ryholt’s identification of a separate Abdju dynasty seems to make good sense of the meager evidence, and has been followed here. Ryholt’s work remains the best compilation of sources for the Thirteenth to Seventeenth dynasties.

  For the fortress at Tjaru, see Mohamed Abd el-Maksoud, Tell Hebua. Georges Posener, “Les asiatiques en Égypte,” presents some of the textual evidence for Asiatics in Egyptian society during the late Middle Kingdom. Asiatic immigration into the delta during this period, and the site of Hutwaret in all its phases, are discussed by Manfred Bietak, “Egypt and the Levant”; while his articles “Dab‘a, Tell ed-” and “The Center of Hyksos Rule” present the results of ongoing excavations at Hutwaret, including the statue of an Asiatic official and the ring bezel naming an “overseer of Retjenu.” (The translation is offered by Geoffrey Martin, “The Toponym Retjenu.”)

  Stephen Quirke’s “Royal Power in the 13th Dynasty” is by far the best treatment of a difficult subject. Aidan Dodson, “The Tombs of the Kings,” discusses the evidence for the royal tombs of the period. For the career of Sobekhotep III, see Toby Wilkinson, Lives of the Ancient Egyptians (no. 37). King Nehesy of the Fourteenth Dynasty is the subject of Manfred Bietak, “Zum Königreich des ‘3-zh-R‘ Nehesi.” Nehesy is attested both at Tell el-Hebua and at Tell el-Muqdam, which guarded the approach to the Wadi Tumilat. Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation, dates the secession of the northeastern delta to the reign of Sobekneferu, making the so-called Fourteenth Dynasty of Nehesy entirely coeval with the Thirteenth Dynasty. However, such an early date is difficult to reconcile with the continuation of the Thirteenth Dyn
asty’s trading relationship with Kebny and has not met with general acceptance. I have followed instead the consensus view, that the rupture took place late in the Thirteenth Dynasty, after the reigns of Sobekhotep IV and Merneferra Ay.

  For the channel bringing freshwater into the royal citadel at Hutwaret, see Josef Dorner, “A Late Hyksos Water-Supply System.” Initially sixteen feet thick, the citadel’s wall was strengethened at a later date, perhaps at the outbreak of hostilities with the Thebans. The Abdju dynasty and the Theban Sixteenth Dynasty are treated at length in Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation; the pathetic stela of King Wepwawetemsaf, one of the members of the short-lived Abdju dynasty, is published by Janine Bourriau, Pharaohs and Mortals (catalogue no. 58, pp. 72–73). The monuments of Sobekhotep VIII, Neferhotep III, and King Mentuhotepi, together with all the important texts from the Second Intermediate Period, including private inscriptions from Buhen, are translated and discussed by Donald Redford, “Textual Sources for the Hyksos Period.” Another invaluable source is Wolfgang Helck, Historisch-Biographische Texte. For a more detailed publication of two of the Buhen stelae, see Torgny Säve-Söderbergh, “A Buhen Stela.” For the detailed publication of the stela of Mentuhotepi, see Pascal Vernus, “La stèle du pharaon Mntw-htpi.” Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation, makes a convincing case for a temporary conquest of Thebes by Hyksos forces, although this has been refuted by Detlef Franke, “The Late Middle Kingdom.”

  For the establishment of Theban garrisons at Gebtu and Abdju in the early Seventeenth Dynasty, see Detlef Franke, “An Important Family at Abydos,” and Steven Snape, “Statues and Soldiers at Abydos.” The Seventeenth Dynasty pyramid complex of Nubkheperra Intef has been excavated and published by Daniel Polz, “The Pyramid Complex of Nubkheperre Intef,” with further details supplied by Lisa Giddy, “Digging Diary 2001.” For the historical significance of the Seventeenth Dynasty, see Daniel Polz, Der Beginn des Neuen Reiches. Vivian Davies, “Sobeknakht of Elkab” and “Egypt and Nubia,” presents and discusses the newly discovered inscription describing the Kushite invasion of Upper Egypt. For Seqenenra Taa’s campaign headquarters, see Peter Lacovara, “Deir el-Ballas.” The life and death of Taa are discussed by Toby Wilkinson, Lives of the Ancient Egyptians (no. 39), while Kamose’s lament is taken from the Carnarvon tablet, published by Alan Gardiner, “The Defeat of the Hyksos by Kamose.”