The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt

by Toby Wilkinson

  16. Ibid., line 24.

  17. Amenhotep II, Memphis stela, line 28.

  18. Ibid., line 29.

  CHAPTER 13: GOLDEN AGE

  Two recent volumes of studies are indispensable for understanding the reign of Amenhotep III. They are Arielle Kozloff et al., Egypt’s Dazzling Sun, and David O’Connor and Eric H. Cline (eds.), Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. Joann Fletcher, Egypt’s Sun King, offers an accessible and sumptuously illustrated chronology of Amenhotep’s life and reign. All three publications include discussions of the commemorative scarabs. (The bull hunt scarab in particular is published in Arielle Kozloff et al., Egypt’s Dazzling Sun, p. 70.) Altogether, Amenhotep III issued five different commemorative scarabs; although they are explicitly dated by their content to between the second and eleventh years of his reign, it is possible that they were issued at one and the same time, to highlight the main achievements of his first decade on the throne. The form and material of the scarabs prefigure Amenhotep’s later obsession with solar symbolism: the ancient Egyptian name for glazed material was tjehenet (“dazzling”), while the scarab represented Khepri, the god of the rising sun.

  For Amenhotep III’s extensive temple construction projects, see especially Arielle Kozloff et al., Egypt’s Dazzling Sun, Chapter 4, and Raymond Johnson, “Monuments and Monumental Art.” It has been suggested that the statues of Sekhmet from the Mut complex were originally installed in Amenhotep III’s mortuary temple on the west bank, only later being moved across the river. However, the close theological association of the two goddesses (Sekhmet and Mut) makes it equally possible that the statues were intended for the Mut complex from the outset. New discoveries of colossal sculpture from the king’s mortuary temple at Kom el-Hetan are presented by Hourig Sourouzian, “New Colossal Statues.”

  Foreign relations, including the significance of the Aegean place-names, are treated at length by James Weinstein et al., “The World Abroad.” A fragmentary papyrus from Amarna, which may depict Mycenaean soldiers serving in the Egyptian army of the late Eighteenth Dynasty, is published by Louise Schofield and Richard Parkinson in “Of Helmets and Heretics” and (authors reversed) “Akhenaten’s Army?” The most thorough and accessible edition of the Amarna Letters is William Moran, The Amarna Letters; Raymond Cohen and Raymond Westbrook’s Amarna Diplomacy offers a range of scholarly studies on international relations as reflected in the diplomatic correspondence. Samuel Meier, “Diplomacy and International Marriages,” discusses the marriages between the great powers attested in the Amarna Letters.

  The seminal study of Luxor Temple and its significance in royal theology is Lanny Bell, “Luxor Temple and the Cult of the Royal Ka.” Also useful is Richard Wilkinson, The Complete Temples (pp. 95–98), and Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt (2nd ed., pp. 261–273); the latter offers a good summary of the Opet Festival and a discussion of the divine birth scene. For the recently discovered statue of Amenhotep III as “foremost of all the living kas” and “dazzling orb of all lands,” see Arielle Kozloff et al., Egypt’s Dazzling Sun, pp. 132–135. The colorful names of Amenhotep III’s concubines are analyzed by Nicholas Millet, “Some Canopic Inscriptions.”

  Amenhotep III’s sed festivals are discussed by Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt (2nd ed., pp. 276–281). On the occasion of Amenhotep’s second sed festival in the thirty-fourth year of his reign, the western harbor was enlarged to nearly double its original size; plans for a third phase of expansion were apparently never realized. For the First Dynasty palette apparently consulted by the king’s researchers, see Bernard Bothmer, “A New Fragment of an Old Palette.” The most accessible publication of the palaces at Malkata and their decoration is William Stevenson Smith, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, Chapter 15. Arielle Kozloff, “The Decorative and Funerary Arts,” offers a detailed study of glassmaking at Malkata and elsewhere during the reign of Amenhotep III, with excellent illustrations. Texts and scenes describing Amenhotep III’s first and third sed festivals feature prominently in the tomb of Tiye’s steward Kheruef, published by the Epigraphic Survey, The Tomb of Kheruef. The eastern harbor, excavated as a complement to the western “Birket Habu,” is clearly marked (labeled “hippodrome”) on the map of Thebes from the Napoleonic Déscription de l’Égypte (vol. II, plate I, titled “Thèbes: plan général de la portion de la vallée du Nil qui comprend les ruines”), published by Charles Gillispie and Michel Dewachter, Monuments of Egypt.

  1. Amenhotep III, bull-hunt scarab.

  2. Amenhotep III, Kom el-Hetan stela, line 2.

  3. Amarna Letters, EA17 (translation by William Moran, The Amarna Letters).

  4. Ibid., EA19 (translation by William Moran, The Amarna Letters).

  5. Amenhotep III, marriage scarab.

  6. Amarna Letters, EA22 (translation by William Moran, The Amarna Letters).

  7. Ibid., EA1 (translation by William Moran, The Amarna Letters).

  8. Amenhotep III, Kom el-Hetan stela, lines 11–12.

  9. Amenhotep III, divine birth inscription, Luxor Temple, section 4, lines 2–4.

  10. Ibid., section 5, lines 1–2.

  11. Ibid., section 5, lines 3–5.

  12. Kheruef, tomb inscription, plate 28.

  13. Ibid.

  CHAPTER 14: ROYAL REVOLUTION

  As befits the period of ancient Egyptian history most written about, the reign of Akhenaten and its aftermath have generated a vast bibliography. References up to the end of the 1980s are gathered together in Geoffrey Martin, A Bibliography of the Amarna Period and Its Aftermath. For more recent scholarship, the bibliography in Rita Freed et al. (eds.), Pharaohs of the Sun, is a good starting point. Rita Freed, “Introduction,” provides a useful summary of the main points of interest and the outstanding questions arising from the period. For a thoughtful and provocative recent appraisal, see also John Darnell and Colleen Manassa, Tutankhamun’s Armies (Chapter 2). The key inscriptions from the period are published in hieroglyphs by Maj Sandman, Texts from the Time of Akhenaten (abbreviated elsewhere as Texts), and in translation by William Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period.

  The most penetrating accounts of Akhenaten himself are Cyril Aldred, Akhe-naten, King of Egypt; Donald Redford, Akhenaten, the Heretic King; and Nicholas Reeves, Akhenaten: Egypt’s False Prophet. The last two, as their titles suggest, take a rather negative view of their subject and his religious revolution. For the reception and co-option of Akhenaten in modern times, Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten, is exemplary and highly readable.

  For the letter from the king of Alashiya to Amenhotep IV at his accession, see Timothy Kendall, “Foreign Relations.” Amenhotep IV’s constructions at Karnak are in the course of excavation, with the latest results presented in editions of the Akhe-naten Temple Project Newsletter. For a convenient summary by the project director, see Donald Redford, “The Beginning of the Heresy.” The eerie statuary from Gempaaten is illustrated in Rita Freed et al., Pharaohs of the Sun. Bak, chief sculptor during the early years of Akhenaten’s reign, makes it clear that he was instructed in the new style by the king himself—see Toby Wilkinson, Lives of the Ancient Egyptians (no. 59). For the celebration and significance of Amenhotep IV’s sed festival at Karnak, see Jocelyn Gohary, The Akhenaten Sed-Festival; William Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period (p. 5); and John Darnell and Colleen Manassa, Tutankhamun’s Armies (pp. 25–27).

  It has been suggested (John Darnell and Colleen Manassa, Tutankhamun’s Armies, pp. 37–40) that the proximity of Khmun (classical Hermopolis) was a key factor in the location of Akhetaten because the Hermopolitan creation myth chimed with Akhenaten’s religious emphasis. However, it was the creation myth of Iunu (which gave prominence to the triad of creator gods Atum, Shu, and Tefnut) that took center stage in Akhenaten’s early doctrine, and Akhenaten himself was adamant that Akhetaten was chosen because it “did not belong to a god nor a goddess.” The boundary stelae at Akhetaten are published by William Murnane and Charles Van Siclen, The Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten. The discovery
of a sixteenth stela is reported by Barry Kemp, “Discovery: A New Boundary Stela.” Recent excavations in the main quarry at Akhetaten are described by James Harrell, “Ancient Quarries near Amarna.”

  For the best accounts of the foundation and layout of the city, and for a description of the principal ceremonial buildings, see Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt (1st ed., Chapter 7); Peter Lacovara, “The City of Amarna”; Michael Mallinson, “The Sacred Landscape”; Barry Kemp and Salvatore Garfi, A Survey of the Ancient City; and Barry Kemp, “Resuming the Amarna Survey.” Barry Kemp, “The Amarna Story,” summarizes the significance of Akhenaten’s city as an archaeological site. For the North Riverside Palace (the main royal residence) and associated buildings, see Michael Jones, “Appendix 1: The North City,” while Kate Spence, “The North Palace at Amarna,” presents the results of recent work at this important complex. Ian Shaw, “Balustrades, Stairs and Altars,” discusses the distinctive architecture of the Aten cult. Barry Kemp, “The Kom el-Nana Enclosure,” is a good introduction to the outlying royal buildings at the edges of Akhetaten. There was also a workmen’s village (Akhetaten’s equivalent of the Place of Truth) on the low desert behind the city, for the workers employed on the construction of the royal tomb—and a “stone village,” even farther out, the purpose of which remains obscure. See Barry Kemp, “Notes from the Field: The Stone Village.”

  Akhenaten’s radical theology forms a major topic of discussion in all books about the period. John Baines (“How Far Can One Distinguish Between Religion and Politics in Ancient Egypt?”) has argued that Akhenaten’s doctrine may have been one of monolatry rather than monotheism. For most of the king’s subjects, however, such a difference would have been purely academic. Other useful analyses include John Foster, “The New Religion,” and Raymond Johnson, “The Setting: History, Religion, and Art.” The prayers to Osiris and Anubis early in Akhenaten’s reign are found in the tomb of Parennefer at Thebes; see Susan Redford, “Two Field Seasons.” The inanimate representation of the Aten, and its consequent relegation to the top of scenes, wittingly or unwittingly directed attention to the figures of Akhenaten, his wife, and his daughters standing below, underlining their godlike status in the new religion; see William Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period, p. 13. Major temples of the Aten were built at Memphis, Heliopolis, and Kawa in upper Nubia, as well as at Akhetaten, while the temple of Amun at Sesebi, in Nubia, was converted to the Aten cult early in Akhenaten’s reign.

  For the career of Meryra, high priest of the Aten, see Norman de Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of El Amarna (Part I), and Toby Wilkinson, Lives of the Ancient Egyptians (no. 58). A convenient translation of the Great Hymn to the Aten is in Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (vol. 2, pp. 96–100). David Silverman, “The Spoken and Written Word,” discusses the use of vernacular language in Akhenaten’s religious compositions.

  The lives of the poor at Akhetaten have been revealed by recent excavations in the South Tombs cemetery. See Barry Kemp, “Notes from the Field: Lives of the Have-Nots,” “Halfway Through the Amarna Season,” “How Were Things Made?,” and “The Quality of Life”; and Jerry Rose, “Amarna Lives.” For the continued observance of traditional cults, see Rita Freed et al. (eds.), Pharaohs of the Sun (catalogue nos. 179–181, 183–185). Peter Der Manuelian, “Administering Akhenaten’s Egypt,” discusses the likely reaction in the country at large to the proscription of the old deities; for a particular example see Maarten Raven, “The Tomb of Meryneith.”

  Nefertiti has spawned almost as great a bibliography as her husband. One of the best recent analyses of her role in the art and religion of the Amarna Period is Rita Freed, “Art in the Service of Religion and the State.” For the monumental statuary of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, see Kristin Thompson, “Amarna Statuary Fragments.” Salima Ikram’s analysis of household shrines, “Domestic Shrines,” is the standard article on this important aspect of Akhenaten’s religion. Barry Kemp published the chapel of the king’s statue in Ancient Egypt (1st ed., pp. 283–285). For the tombs of officials, see Norman de Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of El Amarna. Also, Gwil Owen, “The Amarna Courtiers’ Tombs,” has some excellent color photographs.

  For possible dissent during the reign of Akhenaten and the security response, see John Darnell and Colleen Manassa, Tutankhamun’s Armies, pp. 189–196. The career of Mahu, chief of police, is profiled by Toby Wilkinson, Lives of the Ancient Egyptians (no. 60), based upon the scenes and texts in Mahu’s tomb, for which see Norman de Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of El Amarna (Part IV). For foreigners in Akhenaten’s bodyguard, see John Darnell and Colleen Manassa, Tutankhamun’s Armies (pp. 191–193, fig. 25), and Rita Freed et al. (eds.), Pharaohs of the Sun (catalogue no. 114). William Murnane, “Imperial Egypt” (p. 109), argues against the foreign extraction of figures such as Aper-El, Pentu, and Tutu. The reception of foreign tribute in the twelfth year of Akhenaten’s reign is depicted in the tombs of Meryra II and Huya, published by Norman de Garis Davies, The Rock Tombs of El Amarna (Parts II and III).

  The royal tomb at Akhetaten, with scenes of mourning at the death of Meketaten, was published by Geoffrey Martin, The Royal Tomb; for recent work at the site, see Marc Gabolde and Amanda Dunsmore, “The Royal Necropolis at Tell el-Amarna.” Sue D’Auria, “Preparing for Eternity,” discusses the afterlife in Akhenaten’s theology. Several shabtis of Akhenaten are published in Rita Freed et al. (eds.), Pharaohs of the Sun (catalogue nos. 219–222).

  The identity of Akhenaten’s co-regent Neferneferuaten and his ephemeral successor Smenkhkara is one of the most hotly debated questions in Egyptology, with the fragmentary evidence allowing for several plausible solutions. For thorough discussions see any of the books on the Amarna Period listed above, together with Nicholas Reeves, “The Royal Family,” and Aidan Dodson, “Why Did Nefertiti Disappear?” (although Dodson has since revised his conclusions). Neferneferuaten’s throne name appears in both masculine and feminine versions (recalling Hatshepsut a century earlier) and is accompanied on occasions by the phrase “effective for her husband,” both of which make it certain that the new co-regent was a woman. Some scholars identify Neferneferuaten as Meritaten, Akhenaten’s eldest daughter, but the correspondence of the name to the first element of Nefertiti’s name argues strongly for the identification followed here. Moreover, Neferneferuaten adopts the epithets “beloved of Neferkheperura, sole one of Ra” and “beloved of sole one of Ra, Akhe-naten,” both of which point to Nefertiti rather than her daughter. William Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period (p. 10), provides further support for this consensus view. The fact that Smenkhkara had the same throne name (Ankhkheperura) as his predecessor Neferneferuaten points heavily in the direction of “Smenkhkara” being yet another name for Nefertiti.

  The restoration of traditional cults under Tutankhamun is discussed by William Murnane, “The Return to Orthodoxy.” For an overview of Tutankhamun’s reign, see Nicholas Reeves, The Complete Tutankhamun; John Darnell and Colleen Manassa, Tutankhamun’s Armies; and Toby Wilkinson, Lives of the Ancient Egyptians (nos. 61–65). For the events surrounding the death of Tutankhamun and his widow’s desperate appeal to the Hittite king, see Trevor Bryce, “The Death of Niphururiya,” who also provides conclusive proof that the widow in question was Ankhesenamun, not Nefertiti. Despite the continuing speculation over the cause of Tutankhamun’s death, a CT scan of his mummy in 2002 showed no signs of violence.

  1. Amarna Letters, EA34 (translation by William Moran, The Amarna Letters).

  2. Amarna Letters, EA147 (translation by William Moran, The Amarna Letters).

  3. Akhenaten, earlier foundation inscription, stela K, line 19.

  4. Ibid., stela X, line 15.

  5. Ibid., line 20.

  6. Kevin Nance, “The Dark Side of King Tut.” The quote refers to imagery from the reign of Tutankhamun, but the description is equally applicable to his father.

  7. Meryra I, tomb inscription (south wall, west side).

  8. John Foster, “The New R
eligion,” p. 99.

  9. Great Hymn to the Aten, lines 2–11.

  10. Ibid., lines 12–13.

  11. Akhenaten, later foundation inscription, line 4.

  12. Tutu, tomb inscription, west wall, south side, lower part, lines 26–27.

  13. Mahu, tomb inscription, front wall, south side.

  14. Ibid.

  15. Huya, tomb inscription, west wall.

  16. Amarna Letters, EA16 (translation by William Moran, The Amarna Letters).

  17. Tutankhamun, restoration stela, lines 5–9.

  18. Ibid., lines 4–5.

  19. The Deeds of Suppiluliuma (translation after Hans Güterbock, “The Deeds of Suppiluliuma,” pp. 94–95).

  20. Ibid.

  CHAPTER 15: MARTIAL LAW

  A work of fundamental importance for understanding the role of the army in New Kingdom society is Andrea Gnirs, Militär und Gesellschaft, while the classic account of army organization remains Alan Schulman, Military Rank, Title and Organization. For army life, weaponry, and military tactics, see John Darnell and Colleen Manassa, Tutankhamun’s Armies. Metal helmets were introduced during the New Kingdom but were not commonplace. The identification of Perunefer with Hutwaret is advocated by Manfred Bietak, “The Tuthmoside Stronghold of Perunefer.” For an alternative view, that Perunefer was at Memphis, see David Jeffreys, “Perunefer.” The scene showing Egyptian soldiers leaving the battlefield with enemy hands skewered on spears is illustrated in Donald Redford (ed.), The Akhenaten Temple Project (plate 14, no. 3).

  The key source for the career of Horemheb, as high official and king, is Robert Hari, Horemheb et la reine Moutnedjmet. Allan Philips, “Horemheb,” discusses an important piece of evidence that suggests, for the Ramesside kings at least, Horemheb was regarded as the founder of their royal house, not the last king of the previous (Eighteenth) dynasty. When it came to the future of the Aten cult, Horemheb may have hedged his bets. There is evidence to suggest that he dedicated two pieces of furniture in the Great Aten Temple at Akhetaten while smashing statues of Akhe-naten set up in the same building, thus honoring the Aten as a god (now one of many) while persecuting the memory of the Aten’s chief proponent. Horemheb’s private tomb, which sheds important light on his military and civilian activities during the reign of Tutankhamun, has been published by Geoffrey Martin, The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb. For the likely course of events surrounding the murder of Zannanza and the succession of Ay, see Trevor Bryce, “The Death of Niphururiya.” Convenient translations of the coronation inscription and the edict of Horemheb are to be found in William Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period.