Citizen Emperor

by Philip Dwyer

  26. Corr. vi. nos. 5014, 5072 (24 July and 24 August 1800).

  27. Corr. vi. n. 4914 (16 June 1800).

  28. Talleyrand was at first consulted by Bonaparte, but he was soon nudged out of the picture and replaced by two other men, both involved in Brumaire, Roedererand Regnaud de Saint-Jean d’Angély. See Paul Bailleu (ed.), Preußen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807: diplomatische Correspondenzen, 2 vols (Leipzig, 1880–7), i,p. 388 (Sandoz-Rollin to the Prussian court, 31 July 1800); Roider, Baron Thugut, pp. 342–5.

  29. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, Mémoires du prince de Talleyrand, 5 vols (Paris, 1891–2), i. p. 281.

  30. Picard, Bonaparte et Moreau, pp. 297–333; Picard, Hohenlinden (Paris, 1909); Savinel, Moreau, pp. 99–103; James R. Arnold, Marengo and Hohenlinden: Napoleon’s Rise to Power (Barnsley, 2005), pp. 197–251. The Austrians had around 60,000 men and 214 cannon compared to Moreau’s 53,000 men and 99 cannon.

  31. According to Bourrienne, Mémoires, iv. p. 249.

  32. Picard, Bonaparte et Moreau, p. 335; Brown, Ending the French Revolution, p. 316.

  33. Moniteur universel, 18, 19 and 20 frimaire an IX (9, 10 and 11 December 1800).

  34. Moreau’s brother, a member of the Tribunate, was sent at the head of a delegation (Moniteur, 14 and 16 nivôse an IX (4 and 6 January 1801); Antoine-Clair Thibaudeau, Le Consulat et l’Empire, ou Histoire de la France et de Napoléon Bonaparte, de 1799 à 1815, 10 vols (Paris, 1834–5), ii. pp. 82–3).

  35. Corr. vi. n. 5250 (2 January 1801).

  36. On 16 July 1800 (Corr. vi. n. 4993), shortly after the battle of Marengo, Bonaparte ordered paintings of Marengo, and also of Rivoli, Moskirch, the Pyramids, Aboukir and Mount Thabor (J. Tripier Le Franc, Histoire de la vie et de la mort du baron Gros (Paris, 1880), p. 176). They were not completed for many years.

  37. Philippe de Ségur, Histoire et mémoires, par le général comte de Ségur, 7 vols (Paris, 1873), ii. p. 104.

  38. Mathieu Dumas, Souvenirs du général comte Mathieu Dumas, de 1770 à 1836, 3 vols (Paris, 1839), iii. p. 217.

  39. Charles Decaen, Mémoires et journaux du général Decaen, 2 vols (Paris, 1910–11), ii. p. 245; Picard, Bonaparte et Moreau, pp. 341–2.

  40. Corr. vi. n. 5271 (9 January 1801); Picard, Bonaparte et Moreau, pp. 342–3.

  41. Moniteur universel, 12 and 14 germinal an IX (2 and 4 April 1801); Picard, Bonaparte et Moreau, pp. 347–51.

  42. AN F7 3829, 7 thermidor an IX (26 July 1801).

  43. Instructions to Joseph in Corr. vi. nos. 5131 (20 October 1800) and 5315 (21 January 1801); Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics, pp. 210–13.

  44. Paul Marmottan, ‘Joseph Bonaparte diplomate (Lunéville, Amiens, 1801, 1802)’,Revue d’histoire diplomatique, 41 (1927), 276–300; Paul Marmottan, ‘Joseph Bonaparte à Mortefontaine, 1800–1803’, Nouvelle Revue, 100 (1929), 3–16, 113–28, 209–19, 266–73.

  45. Haegele, Napoléon et Joseph Bonaparte, pp. 131–2; Emmanuel de Waresquiel, Talleyrand: le prince immobile (Paris, 2003), pp. 291–2.

  46. Hugh Ragsdale, ‘Russian Influence at Lunéville’, French Historical Studies, 5 (1968), 274–84, here 276; Adams, Napoleon and Russia, p. 53; Roderick E. McGrew, Paul I of Russia (Oxford, 1992), pp. 304–12.

  47. Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics, p. 212.

  48. On Campo Formio see Dwyer, Napoleon: The Path to Power, pp. 314–17. On the negotiations see August Fournier, Napoleon I: A Biography, trans. Annie Elizabeth Adams, 2 vols (New York, 1911), i. pp. 240–5.

  49. Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics, p. 213.

  50. Thugut, Vertrauliche Briefe, ii. pp. 399–400 (9 February 1801), also p. 409 (14 February 1801).

  51. ‘A one-sided treaty’, according to Frederick W. Kagan, The End of the Old Order: Napoleon and Europe, 1801–1805 (Cambridge, Mass., 2006), pp. 18–19. The exception to the rule is Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics, pp. 213–14, who argues that Austria accepted Lunéville as a permanent treaty.

  52. Journal des Débats, 25 pluviôse an IX (14 February 1801); Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat, ii. p. 176.

  53. Jean-Nicolas-Auguste Noël, Souvenirs militaires d’un officier du premier Empire: 1795–1832 (Paris, 1895), p. 31.

  54. Masson, Napoléon et sa famille, ii. pp. 75–6.

  55. Lanzac de Laborie, Paris sous Napoléon, i. p. 242.

  56. AN AFIV 1449, letter from Pressac des Panche, sub-prefect of the arrondissement of Givray, 29 pluviôse an IX (18 February 1801), f. 42.

  57. AN AFIV 1449, letter from Salesse, curé of St Colombe, Castillon, 17 vendémiaire an X (9 October 1801), f. 530.

  58. AN AFIV 1449, letter from Pieter Pypers from Amsterdam, 22 October 1801, f. 589.

  59. Lucien Calvié, ‘“Le début du siècle nouveau”. Guerre, paix, révolution et Europe dans quelques textes allemands de 1795 à 1801’, in Marita Gilli (ed.), Le cheminement de l’idée européenne dans les idéologies de la paix et de la guerre (Besançon, 1991), pp. 130–1.

  60. For a selection of those texts see Belissa, Repenser l’ordre européen, pp. 162–9.

  61. Philippe Alexandre, ‘Le “Hallisches Wochenblatt”, un journal de la Franconie wurtembergeoise (1788–1803)’, in Pierre Grappin and Jean Moes (eds), Sçavantes délices: périodiques souabes au siècle des Lumières (Paris, 1989), pp. 193–217, here p. 208.

  62. Douglas Hilt, The Troubled Trinity: Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs (Tuscaloosa, 1987), pp. 112–28.

  63. Bonaparte undermined Lucien, negotiating in Madrid, by signing a peace treaty with the Portuguese ambassador in Paris (Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics, pp. 224–5).

  64. Philip Dwyer, ‘Prussia and the Armed Neutrality: The Decision to Invade Hanover in 1801’, International History Review, 15 (1993), 663.

  65. Corr. vii. n. 5352 (6 February 1801).

  66. McGrew, Paul I, p. 315; Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics, p. 218. On the French–Russian rapprochement in 1800 see Hugh Ragsdale, ‘The Origins of Bonaparte’s Russian Policy’, Slavic Review, 27 (1968), 85–90; Hugh Ragsdale, ‘Russia, Prussia, and Europe in the Policy of Paul I’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, 31:1 (1983), 81–118; Hugh Ragsdale, ‘Was Paul Bonaparte’s Fool? The Evidence of Neglected Archives’, in Hugh Ragsdale, (ed.), Paul I: A Reassessment of his Life and Reign (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1979), pp. 76–90; and Hugh Ragsdale, Détente in the Napoleonic Era: Bonaparte and the Russians (Lawrence, Kan., 1980).

  67. Alexander DeConde, The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France, 1797–1801 (New York, 1966), pp. 253–8, 316–20; E. Wilson Lyon, ‘The Franco-American Convention of 1800’, Journal of Modern History, 12 (1940), 305–33.

  68. See Charles John Fedorak, ‘Catholic Emancipation and the Resignation of William Pitt in 1801’, Albion, 24:1 (1992), 49–64; William Hague, William Pitt the Younger (London, 2004), pp. 462–84.

  69. On Addington see Philip Ziegler, Addington: A Life of Henry Addington, First Viscount Sidmouth (London, 1965); Christopher D. Hall, ‘Addington at War: Unspectacular But Not Unsuccessful’, Historical Research, 61 (1988), 306–15; Charles John Fedorak, Henry Addington, Prime Minister, 1801–1804: Peace, War, and Parliamentary Politics (Akron, Ohio, 2002).

  70. Marianne Elliott, Partners in Revolution: The United Irishmen and France (New Haven, 1982), pp. 282–321.

  71. Clive Emsley, British Society and the French Wars 1793–1815 (London, 1979), pp. 85–9, 94; John Stevenson, ‘Popular Radicalism and Popular Protest 1789–1815’, in H. T. Dickinson (ed.), Britain and the French Revolution, 1789–1815 (Basingstoke, 1989), pp. 76–7.

  72. B[ritish] L[ibrary], Add Mss 38316, Hawkesbury to Otto (21 March 1801); Charles Ronald Middleton, The Administration of British Foreign Policy, 1782–1846 (Durham, NC, 1977), pp. 104–5. Otto was a native of Baden.

  73. Fedorak, Henry Addington, p. 79.

  74. AN F7 3830, rapport du préfet de police, 12 vendémiare an X (4 October 1801); Aulard, Paris sou
s le Consulat, ii. pp. 555–6; Norvins, Souvenirs, ii. pp. 278–9.

  75. Fedorak, Henry Addington, p. 69.

  76. Cited in David Johnson, ‘Amiens 1802’, History Today, 52 (2002), 22.

  77. For the response of the British to the news see H. F. B. Wheeler and A. M. Broadley, Napoleon and the Invasion of England: The Story of the Great Terror (Stroud, 2007, reprint 1908), pp. 211–15.

  78. Grainger, The Amiens Truce, pp. 50–1.

  79. James Harris Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence of James Harris, First Earl of Malmesbury, 4 vols (London, 1844), iv. pp. 61–2 (29 October 1801); Leonora Nattrass (ed.), William Cobbett: Selected Writings, 6 vols (London, 1998), ii. pp. 16–20, 21–30 (14 and 16 October 1801); Semmel, Napoleon and the British, pp. 26–7; Grainger, The Amiens Truce, p. 52.

  80. Fedorak, Henry Addington, p. 83.

  81. Charles Ross (ed.), Correspondence of Charles, first Marquis Cornwallis, 3 vols (London, 1859), iii. p. 395 (20 November 1801).

  82. Franklin Wickwire and Mary Wickwire, Cornwallis: The Imperial Years (Chapel Hill, 1980), pp. 252–61; Grainger, The Amiens Truce, p. 76.

  83. Ross (ed.), Correspondence of Cornwallis, iii. pp. 435–7 (10 January 1802).

  84. Albert Du Casse, Mémoires et correspondance politique et militaire du roi Joseph, 10 vols (Paris, 1853–4), i. p. 87.

  85. See Fedorak, Henry Addington, pp. 79–87; Grainger, The Amiens Truce, pp. 49–81.

  86. Charles John Fedorak, ‘The French Capitulation in Egypt and the Preliminary Anglo-French Treaty of Peace in October 1801: A Note’, International History Review, 15 (1993), 525–43.

  87. William, Lord Auckland, The Journal and Correspondence of William, Lord Auckland, 4 vols (London, 1861–2), iv. pp. 136–8, 143–52, 172–3; William Windham, The Windham Papers: The Life and Correspondence of the Rt. Hon. William Windham, 1750–1810, 2 vols (London, 1913), ii. p. 173 (1 October 1801). See also Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence, iv. pp. 59, 60 (29 and 30 September 1801) and 65, 147, 156–7. On 1 October Malmesbury’s diary entry reads, ‘Lord Bathurst, Lord Pembroke, Lord Camden, and Lord Radnor, all disapprove of it. Lord Grenville and all his family are violent against it.’ For other reactions see Ziegler, Addington, pp. 125–7.

  88. Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence, iv. p. 61 (29 October 1801); Peter Jupp, Lord Grenville: 1759–1834 (Oxford, 1985), pp. 309–15.

  89. Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence, iv. p. 60 (1 October 1801).

  90. Minto to Paget, The Paget Papers: Diplomatic and Other Correspondence of Sir Arthur Paget, 1794–1807, 2 vols (London, 1896), ii. p. 27 (4 January 1802).

  91. Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence, iv. pp. 62–3 (29 October 1801); Hamish Scott, The Birth of a Great Power System, 1740–1815 (Harlow, 2006), p. 305.

  92. Esdaile, Napoleon’s Wars, p. 107.

  93. John Stevenson, ‘Food Riots in England’, in R. Quinault and John Stevenson (eds), Popular Protest and Public Order: Six Studies in British History, 1790–1920 (London, 1974), pp. 33–74.

  94. Henry Redhead Yorke, France in Eighteen Hundred and Two Described in a Series of Contemporary Letters (London, 1906), pp. 10–11.

  95. Forrest, ‘La perspective de la paix dans l’opinion publique’, 254.

  96. Elizabeth Mavor (ed.), The Grand Tours of Katherine Wilmot, France 1801–1803, and Russia 1805–07 (London, 1992), p. 47, writes of witnessing a landlord in the Rhône and Loire sitting at a table composing a letter to Bonaparte, ‘and when he had directed his letter “au premier Consul”, he took us up to a little bedchamber where, in a transport of pride, he told us . . . the “Saviour of his country” had repos’d’.

  97. AN AFIV 1449, letter from Vietinghoff, Versailles, 20 brumaire an X (11 November 1801), f. 418.

  98. AN AFIV 1449, letter from Rouget, commissioner of police, Bordeaux, 9 brumaire an X (30 October 1801), f. 441. See also Forrest, ‘La perspective de la paix dans l’opinion publique’, 251–62.

  99. Talleyrand, Mémoires, i. p. 286.

  100. Emile Tersen, Napoléon (Paris, 1959), p. 120; Lentz, Grand Consulat, p. 296.

  101. Gautier-Sauzin, Discours prononcé par le maire de Montauban. See also Pierre Crouzet, La fête de la paix, ou les élèves de Saint-Cyr à Marengo (Paris, n.d.); and Paul-Henri Marron, Discours prononcé la veille de la fête de la Paix, 17 brumaire an X, dans le temple des protestans de Paris (Paris, 1801).

  102. Joseph Fiévée, Lettres sur l’Angleterre et réflexions sur la philosophie du XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1802), p. 43. The letter addressed to Bonaparte from a former member of the Constituent Assembly amply illustrates the point (AN AFIV 1449, letter from Brouillet, dated Millau, 16 brumaire an X (7 November 1801), f. 561).

  103. Jean-Paul Bertaud, Quand les enfants parlaient de gloire: l’armée au coeur de la France de Napoléon (Paris, 2006), pp. 21–2; Programme de la fête de la paix qui aura lieu le 18 brumaire an X (Paris, 1801). For other theatrical celebrations of the peace see Patrick Berthier, ‘La paix d’Amiens dans la littérature’, in Nadine-Josette Chaline (ed.), La Paix d’Amiens (Amiens, 2005), pp. 213–15, 221–30.

  104. Claire-Elisabeth-Jeanne Gravier de Vergennes, comtesse de Rémusat, Mémoires de Madame de Rémusat, 1802–1808, 3 vols (Paris, 1880), i. p. 238.

  105. For the reaction in the Parisian press see Berthier, ‘La paix d’Amiens dans la littérature’, pp. 216–21.

  106. Journal des arts, des sciences, et de littérature, 25 brumaire an X (16 November 1801); Berthier, ‘La paix d’Amiens dans la littérature’, p. 219.

  107. For this and the following engraving see Bruno Foucart, ‘L’accueil de la Paix d’Amiens par les artistes’, in Chaline (ed.), La Paix d’Amiens, pp. 236, 239.

  108. A Practical Guide during a Journey from London to Paris; with a Correct Description of all the Objects Deserving of Notice in the French Metropolis (London, 1802), pp. 35–6.

  109. Bury and Barry (eds), An Englishman in Paris, p. 121.

  110. A Practical Guide during a Journey from London to Paris, p. 34.

  111. Jean Tulard, Nouvelle histoire de Paris: le Consulat et l’Empire: 1800–1815 (Paris, 1983), pp. 92–3.

  112. Henri d’Alméras, La vie parisienne sous le Consulat et l’Empire (Paris, 1909), p. 20.

  113. Louis Prudhomme, Miroir historique, politique et critique de l’ancien et du nouveau Paris, et du département de la Seine, 6 vols (Paris, 1807), i. pp. 303–10; Alméras, La vie parisienne sous le Consulat et l’Empire, p. 26. There is a wonderful description of the ‘patterns of urban life’ in pre-revolutionary Paris in David Garrioch, The Making of Revolutionary Paris (Berkeley, 2002), pp. 16–35.

  114. Raimbach, Memoirs, pp. 95, 101.

  115. Mavor (ed.), The Grand Tours of Katherine Wilmot, p. 19.

  116. Laurent Turcot, ‘Entre promenades et jardins publics: les loisirs parisiens et londoniens au XVIIIe siècle’, Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire/Belgisch tijdschrift voor filologie en geschiedenis, 87 (2009), 645–52.

  117. August von Kotzebue, Souvenirs de Paris en 1804, 2 vols (Paris, 1805), i. pp. 266–9; Honoré Blanc, Le Guide des dîneurs, ou Statistique des principaux restaurants de Paris (Paris, 1814), pp. 15, 94, 194; Rebecca L. Spang, The Invention of the Restaurant: Paris and Modern Gastronomic Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 2000), pp. 92, 172–3.

  118. Prudhomme, Miroir historique, politique et critique, i. pp. 276, 283.

  119. Kotzebue, Souvenirs, i. pp. 270–1.

  120. A Practical Guide during a Journey from London to Paris, p. 134; Kotzebue, Souvenirs, i. pp. 262–3.

  121. Abrantès, Mémoires, iii. pp. 34, 53,

  122. Steven D. Kale, French Salons: High Society and Political Sociability from the Old Regime to the Revolution of 1848 (Baltimore, 2004), pp. 77–104.

  123. Anne Martin-Fugier, La vie élégante ou La formation du Tout-Paris, 1815–1848 (Paris, 1990), p. 192; Steven D. Kale, ‘Women, Salons, and the State in the Aftermath of the French Revolution’, Journal of Women’s History, 13:4 (2002), 5
8–9; Steven D. Kale, ‘Women, the Public Sphere, and the Persistence of Salons’, French Historical Studies, 25:1 (2002), 115–48.

  124. Aglaé Marie Louise de Choiseul Gouffier, duchesse de Saulx-Tavanes, Sur les routes de l’émigration: mémoires de la duchesse de Saulx-Tavannes (1791–1806) (Paris, 1934), pp. 159–60, 174–6.

  125. Peter Fritzsche, ‘The Historical Actor’, in Edward Berenson and Eva Giloi (eds), Constructing Charisma: Celebrity, Fame, and Power in Nineteenth-Century Europe (New York, 2010), p. 136. The figures for the number of visitors vary: the British ambassador, Anthony Merry, estimated that in December 1802 there were 5,000 British subjects in Paris (John Goldworth Alger, Napoleon’s British Visitors and Captives 1801–1815 (Edinburgh, 1904), p. 25; Daniel Roche, ‘The English in Paris’, in Christophe Charle, Julien Vincent and Jay Winter (eds), Anglo-French Attitudes: Comparisons and Transfers between English and French Intellectuals since the Eighteenth Century (Manchester, 2007), pp. 78–97; and Renaud Morieux, ‘“An Inundation from Our Shores”: Travelling across the Channel around the Peace of Amiens’, in Philp (ed.), Resisting Napoleon, pp. 217–40). As for the number of French visitors to Britain, between December 1802 and April 1803 the British embassy in Paris issued over 3,300 passports (Grainger, The Amiens Truce, pp. 130–1). The discrepancy came about in part because there was no French tradition of visiting Britain, whereas the British tour of the Continent was a long-established ritual.

  126. J. R. Watson, Romanticism and War: A Study of British Romantic Period Writers and the Napoleonic Wars (Basingstoke, 2003), p. 85.

  127. Thomas U. Sadleir (ed.), An Irish Peer on the Continent (1801–1803): Being a Narrative of the Tour of Stephen, 2nd Earl Mount Cashell, through France, Italy, etc., as related by Catherine Wilmot (London, 1920), pp. 1–2.

  128. Mavor (ed.), The Grand Tours of Katherine Wilmot, p. 10.

  129. Blagdon, Paris As It Was and As It Is, i. p. 2; Yorke, France in Eighteen Hundred and Two, pp. 16–17.

  130. Lanzac de Laborie, Paris sous Napoléon, ii. pp. 339–40.