climatology, 424; and continental displacements, 408, 424–425, 440–441, 449, 503–505; emergence of, 172; Köppen as prominent figure in, 156, 157–158, 425–427, 448; Köppen’s early interest in, 425; Wegener and Köppen as coauthors of volume on, 468–477, 486–494, 525; Wegener’s courses on, 423, 428, 449; Wegener’s interest in, 362–363. See also meteorological research; paleoclimatology
Cloos, Hans, 477; as adviser to Wegener on geology, 329–330, 332–333, 334, 336–337, 376, 403, 404, 432, 456
cloud atlas: by Köppen, 426; Wegener’s interest in, 358, 361, 364
clouds: as atmospheric discontinuities, 173–174, 186; noctilucent, 52, 173, 186; physics of, 199, 201, 213, 430; scientific study of, 77, 432; types of, 167–168, 173
coal: formation of, 473–474, 488; fossils found in, 473–474
Cöllnische Gymnasium: Wegener and his brothers as students at, 14–18, 19; curriculum at, 14
Conrad, Victor, 201, 468, 494
continental blocks: center of gravity of, 420; cross-section of, 455–457; density of, 258–260; force vectors affecting, 411, 459; and fold mountain structures, 268; plasticity of, 261–262. See also continental displacements, Wegener’s hypothesis of
continental displacements, Wegener’s hypothesis of, 214–215, 232–238, 240–241, 329–338, 342–343; Andrée’s critique of, 363–364, 367, 404; Argand as supporter of, 483–485, 548; articulation of, 252–264; Berlin symposium on, 438–445; botanical evidence for, 234–235, 395–396, 485–486, 550; challenges to, 521–525, 530–532, 543–544; and climate change, 470; climatological evidence for, 408, 424–425, 427, 440–441, 449, 460–462, 503–504, 550–551; Cloos’s perspective on, 329–330, 332–333, 334, 336–337, 376, 403, 404; correlation of species as evidence for, 242, 246, 366; du Toit as supporter of, 546–549, 572–573; and estimated rates of separation, 273–275; evidentiary foundation for, 242–247, 406–407, 439–440; formulation of, 249–252, 260; geological evidence for, 232–236, 265–273, 331–337, 377, 440, 455–457, 487–491, 546–550; geophysical evidence for, 407–409, 440, 450, 455, 527; growing support for, 405, 444–445, 459; and the history of climate, 423, 469–462; hostility toward, in Europe and America, 478–483, 524–525; and ice ages, 427; intellectual and social history of, 599–600; Irmscher as supporter of, 395–396, 403, 406, 409, 484–485; Köppen’s reservations regarding, 375–377; measurement of, 273–276, 419, 422–423, 507, 544–545; mechanics of, 335; multiple forces at work in, 556–558; New York Times article on, 519–520; ongoing debate over, 374–378; paleontological evidence for, 234, 267–268, 366, 550; and the permanence debate, 365–371; possible causes of, 335–336, 412, 420–421; publications relating to, 241–242, 252–264, 327–328, 348–349, 360, 396–423, 449–464, 543–558; responses of other scientists to, 319, 348–349, 360–361, 396, 402, 477–478; retractions and reformulations regarding, 456–460; Simpson as supporter of, 518–519; U.S. symposium on, 520–524; Vienna symposium on, 510–511; Wegener’s background and training as preparation for, 276–277, 359–360, 408. See also paleoclimatology; pole displacement
continental drift. See continental displacements, Wegener’s hypothesis of
continents: in the Carboniferous, 413–414; as distinct layer in Earth, 253; in the Eocene, 414–415; system of movements of, 419–422; westward migration of, 420, 447–448, 460, 507
contraction theory (Schrumpfungshypothese): 244, 252; limitations of, 253–254, 255, 264, 270, 331, 365, 366, 397, 405, 410, 425, 452–454, 484
convection: as factor in continental displacements, 557–558
Cook, Frederick, 182
Copeland, Ralph, 274
Copernican Revolution, 239–241
Copernicus, Nicholas, 239
coral atolls, 255
cosmic physics, 276–277; Wegener’s interest in, 54–58, 349–350, 361
Courtauld, Augustine, 595
Coym, Arthur, 81–82, 85, 96, 180
Croll, James, 222, 470
cyclonic storms, 174, 317–318, 516–517; and discontinuities, 198–199; and rotation of the earth, 355; thermal theory of, 194–195; Wegener’s study of, 353–356, 597, 600. See also tornadoes
Dacqué, Edgar, 428, 457, 526; on the permanence debate, 365–366, 367–368, 369–370, 371; as supporter of Wegener’s hypothesis, 337–338, 360, 396, 398, 402, 405, 487
Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 187
Daly, Reginald A., 260–261, 523, 531, 558
Danmark: abandon-ship drill on, 105–106; departure of, 100; voyage of, 100–106. See also Danmark Expedition
Danmark Expedition: at Cape Bismarck, 106–107, 153; challenges and setbacks experienced by, 104–105, 114, 116–123, 132–134, 140–141, 143–144, 146–147, 148–150, 590; the Great Sledge Trip to the North, 132–138, 167; kite and balloon flights launched during, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112–113, 114, 124, 127, 130, 139–140, 141–142, 145, 152–153, 162–167; mapping expeditions of, 113–114, 127, 132–133, 135–136, 137, 167; nationalistic purpose of, 129–130; restrictions on scientific publication following, 155, 161–162, 166–167; return home of, 153–154; scientific data accumulated on, 161–167; scientific instruments used in, 111–113, 114, 116, 121, 128, 130, 163–164; scientific program of, 94–96, 99, 104, 108, 109–110, 111–117, 121–122, 124–125, 127–128, 139–148, 150–153; sled trip to Germania Haven, 117–123; staff and crew of, 93, 100–101; the “Villa” as residence for Wegener and others, 111–112, 116, 129; Wegener as geologist on, 131, 135–136, 139; Wegener’s early interest in, 85–92; Wegener’s frustrations with, 278; Wegener’s journal entries from, 102, 104–105, 106, 107–108, 109, 110–111, 114–115, 116, 117–118, 122–123, 124–126, 127, 128–129, 137, 143–144, 153; Wegener’s reporting on results from, 158–159, 175, 181, 203–204, 205, 219–220, 230, 249, 501, 532–533; Wegener’s preparations for, 94–96, 98–100
Danmarkshavn: Danmark Expedition at, 106, 109, 113–114, 121, 130, 131, 139, 143–145, 147, 150; departure from, 153; Greenland expedition at, 285, 286, 288–289; maps and photos of, 107, 108, 112, 133; temperatures at, 140; windstorm at, 141
Darmstädter, Ludwig, 282
Darwin, Charles, 243, 255, 599; The Descent of Man, 41, 479; as influence on Wegener, 49, 50, 51; On the Origin of Species, 51, 403. See also evolutionary theory
Darwin, George, 195, 231, 247, 251, 270, 480
Daugard-Jensen, Jens, 586
Davidson, Johan, 567, 568, 569, 570
Debenham, Frank, 480, 483, 518–519
Defant, Albert, 467, 468, 502, 512, 563
de Gruyter, Walter, 448
de la Vaulx, Henry, Comte, 98
de Quervain, Alfred, 79, 81, 156, 157, 220, 358, 446, 539, 564
Descartes, René, 59
Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft (DMG): Wegener’s lecture at, 157–160
Deutsche Seewarte. See German Marine Observatory
Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane (Wegener). See continental displacements, Wegener’s hypothesis of; “Origin of Continents, The” (Wegener, 1912); Origin of Continents and Oceans, The (Wegener/first edition); Origin of Continents and Oceans, The (Wegener/second edition); Origin of Continents and Oceans, The (Wegener/third edition); Origin of Continents and Oceans, The (Wegener/fourth edition)
Die Entstehung der Mondkrater (Wegener), 436–438, 455
die Hütte: Alfred at, 11–13, 18, 30, 58–59; Else and children at, 358–359, 500; Wegener family’s move to, 10–13
Diener, Carl, 369, 374, 404, 414, 416, 428, 432, 451–452, 502, 510; as critic of Wegener’s hypothesis, 360, 363, 367, 368, 377, 396, 402, 409, 415, 416, 428, 444, 532, 543
Diesterweg, Friedrich, 18, 48
Dietrichson, Oluf, 221
Dilthey, Wilhelm, 42, 45, 46
discontinuities, atmospheric. See atmospheric discontinuities
displacement of Earth’s axis. See pole displacement
Douvillé, Robert, 476
Drake Passage, 335
Dronning Louise Land (Greenland),
151, 219–220, 293, 298
Drude, Paul, 170
Drygalski, Erich von, 445, 563; as polar explorer, 57, 79, 93, 98, 99, 101, 129, 154, 157, 182, 501, 542
du Toit, Alexander, 552, 572–573; A Geological Comparison of South America with South Africa, 546–549
Dubois, Eugène, 486
dust devils (Staubwirbel), 353
dynamic meteorology, 193, 209, 281, 426
Earth: chemical differentiation of, 245, 259–260, 261–262; cross section of, 260, 455–457; gravity field of, 254, 256–257; interior of, 248; magnetic behavior of, 121–122; as a planetary body, 399–400; plasticity of the interior of, 261–262, 546. See also continental displacements, Wegener’s hypothesis of; map projections
Earth’s crust: motions of, 243–247; rotations of, 553–554; thickness of, 257–260, 273, 530–531. See also continental displacements, Wegener’s hypothesis of
earthquake wave studies, 257–258
East Africa: rift valleys of, 266, 381–382, 410
Ebert, Hermann, 388, 389
Egede, Hans, 307
Eggert, Hermann, 56
Einstein, Albert, 48, 54, 64, 192
Eismitte. See Mid-Ice Station
Ekholm, Nils, 67
Elstner, Ernst, 282, 287, 312
embryotectonics, 483–484
Emergency Committee for German Science. See Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft
Endurance Expedition, 93
Enke, Johann Franz, 32
Eötvös, Roland von, 458
Epstein, Paul, 458–460, 504
Estonia: Wegener’s tentative assignment to, 379
Eucken, Arnold, 513
Euclid, 48
Euler, Leonhard, 25, 416
Evans, John, 476, 481, 482, 483, 492
evolutionary theory, 41; as applied to all aspects of life, 47–48, 49–51
existentialism, 43
Exner, Felix Maria, 317, 466, 467, 468, 495, 498, 507–508, 510, 511–512; and Vilhelm Bjerknes, 280, 283, 430, 436, 511, 516–517; as critical of Wegener’s Thermodynamik, 278–281, 283, 327, 343; death of, 576; Wegener’s first meeting with, 430; Wegener’s reviews of books by, 361–362, 516–517
Exner, Franz Serafin, 279, 498, 502
exploration geophysics, 520–521
explosion seismology, 540, 564–565, 569
Farbenbunden (color bands), 29–30
falling bodies, law of, 555–556
Fanck, Arnold, 598
Faraday, Michael, 28, 597
fault troughs (Graben), 265–266
Fermi, Enrico, 53
Ferrel, William, 361
Ferrié, Gustave Auguste, 519
Ficker, Heinrich, 156, 157, 202, 430, 466, 467, 468, 494, 495, 498, 503, 512
Filchner, Wilhelm, 182–183, 190–191, 542; Wegener’s advice to, 207
Findeisen, Walter, 201, 600
Firicks, Baron von, 91
firn, 300, 569
Fisher, Osmond, 251, 480
fixism, 484
Flügel, Helmut, 494
föhn winds, 142, 145, 157, 158–159, 288
fold structures: mountain ranges as, 263, 333, 410–411, 412, 413, 456. See also Alps; Andes; Himalayas
Fontane, Theodor, 1, 12, 58
Förster, Wilhelm, 31, 32, 48, 52, 55–56, 58, 59, 61, 121, 170, 190, 319
fossils: collected on the Danmark Expedition, 135, 136, 149; as evidence of continental displacement, 233–234, 245–246, 254, 472
Fourier, Joseph, 248
Frankel, Henry: The Continental Drift Controversy, 524–525, 544, 600
Franklin, John, 596
Frederik VIII, King, 154
Freuchen, Peter, 121, 154, 191, 529, 586, 595; as adviser for Wegener’s Vorexpedition (1929), 541, 542, 558, 560, 567; as Wegener’s assistant, 102, 116, 128, 144–147, 148, 153; on the Danmark Expedition, 105–106, 130, 150, 154; as writer, 125
Friedman, Robert Marc, 280
Friedrichs, Emil, 575
Friedrich-Wilhelms University of Berlin. See University of Berlin
Friis, Achton: and the Danmark Expedition 104, 105, 108, 123, 125, 137, 218, 501; as author of book about the Danmark Expedition, 112, 139–140, 147–148, 209, 218, 315–316
Frisch, Karl, 431
Fuchs, Lazarus, 30
Funkentelegraphie. See radio telegraphy
Gabrielsen, Tobias, 134–135, 149, 153, 566, 570–571, 572
Galileo, 556
Galle, Andreas, 405, 422, 458, 458
Galvani, Luigi, 214, 237
gases: in the atmosphere, 187–188, 207–208, 211, 213, 328, 362; and the color of a meteor trail, 340; thermodynamics of, 212
Gauss Expedition, 93, 98, 182
Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 32, 33
Geiger, Hans, 467
Geikie, Archibald, 368
geocoronium: as hypothetical element, 207–208, 210, 259, 328, 600
Geographical Society (Berlin): and Wegener’s presentation on continental displacements, 438–445
geological markers: as indicative of certain kinds of climates, 472–473
geology: of the Alps, 36; and the Danmark Expedition, 131, 135–136; and geophysics, 235, 238, 247, 248–249, 250–251, 255–256, 258, 417; history of, 243–244; of Iceland, 233; limitations of, in creating general theories for Earth, 416, 417; map projections as used in, 400; as nationalistic science, 483; as qualitative science, 248–249; as relevant to continental drift, 234–235, 265–273, 377, 417; as a science, 369, 383
geophysics: Abderhalden’s journal of, 219; and geology, 235, 238, 247, 248–249, 250–251, 255–256, 258, 417; and paleontology, 365–366, 432–435; as validation of Wegener’s theory, 407–409, 440, 450, 455, 527. See also atmosphere; continental displacements, Wegener’s hypothesis of
Georgi, Johannes, 133, 196, 392, 399, 446–447, 595; as member of the Vorexpedition (1929), 541, 542, 559, 560–563, 565, 566, 568, 570; and the Greenland expedition (1930–1931), 574–575, 580–582, 586, 588, 589, 591, 592; and plans for his own expedition to Greenland, 535–537, 538–539; resentment of, toward Wegener, 573–574, 577; after Wegener’s death, 597–598
Gerdien, Hans, 83–85, 95
Gerland, Georg, 408–409
Germania Haven: mapping of, 113–114; scientific investigation at, 121–122, 127; sled trip to, 117–123
germanium, 190, 207
German Marine Observatory, 67, 68, 94, 231, 348; kite station at, 392; Köppen as head of the Meteorological Department at, 94, 327, 347; Kurt on staff of, 315, 383, 392–394; Wegener offered positions at, 225, 382–383; Wegener as scientist at, 391–394, 398, 404, 466, 497
Germany: intellectual ferment in, 43–45; postwar economic challenges in, 467, 468–469; residual hostility toward, following the war, 478, 484; scientific community in, 478; university system in, 22–23, 27
Gilbert, Grove Karl, 388
Gislason, Gudmunder, 575
glacial deposits: as geological markers, 473, 475
glaciations: as evidence for displacement, 237–238, 269–270, 462, 472; geological evidence for, 475; in Greenland, 107, 222, 300; physics of, 518
glaciology, 537; and the Danmark Expedition, 153, 220; and the Greenland expedition (1912–1913), 298, 303, 528, 532; and the Greenland expedition (1930–1931), 541; Wegener’s textbook on, 513, 533, 535
Glaisher, James, 74, 83
Glossopteris flora: as evidence of continental displacements, 234, 235, 462, 472, 479, 487, 546, 550
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 51, 195
Goldschmidt, Harold, 290
Gondwanaland, 269, 336, 338, 414, 415, 416, 487, 555
Gordon Bennett International Balloon Competition, 95, 96
Gothan, Walther, 487, 507
Graben. See fault troughs
Gradnetz. See graticule
graticule (Gradnetz), 433, 434, 435
Grauen Kloster, 3–4, 5
gravity: and continental displacements, 254, 256–257, 377, 420
Graz, Austria:
anti-Jewish feeling in, 468; tornado in, 534–535. See also University of Graz
Greenland: American expedition to, 541; British expedition to, 541–542; Nansen’s expedition to, 220–224; thermodynamics of the atmosphere as observed in, 145, 194, 196; Wegener’s plans to return to, 538–542; westward migration of, 273, 274, 385, 441, 507, 543. See also Danmark Expedition; Dronning Louise Land; Greenland expedition (1912–1913); Greenland expedition (1930–1931); Inland Ice; Vorexpedition to Greenland (1929)
Greenland expedition (1912–1913): challenges and setbacks faced by, 290–298, 305–310; Christmas festivities of, 303; departure of, 286–287; funding for, 282; horses as part of, 286, 288–290, 293, 294, 298, 305, 306–308; illness and injury suffered during, 294–295, 296, 300–301, 309; and journey across Greenland, 304–313; Koch and Wegener’s lecture on, 320; Koch’s book based on, 322, 501; Koch’s journal entries from, 296, 310; moodiness and depression during, 298–304; pack ice encountered by, 287–288; preparation for, 283–285; return home from, 314; scientific instruments used in, 299–300, 301–302; scientific program of, 278, 299–300, 303–304, 311–312, 500–501; temperatures experienced during, 303; theodolite lost during, 301–302; transport plan for, 289–290; a typical day for, 292; Wegener family’s unhappiness at, 277–279; Wegener’s motivation for, 278; Wegener’s journal entries from, 289, 296–297, 298, 299, 301, 305; during the winter of 1912–1913, 298–304
Greenland expedition (1930–1931): and ascent of the Kamarajuk Glacier, 579–582; challenges and setbacks faced by, 582–586; departure of, 577; equipment used in, 575–576; final reports from, 598; preparations for, 573–577; propeller sleds as used in, 575–576, 584–585, 586, 587, 588, 593–594; published account of, 598; and recriminations following Wegener’s death, 597–598; at Scheideck, 583–584, 585–585; scientific program of, 578, 597; temperatures during, 590, 591; tensions among members of, 582–583
Gregory, John Walter, 521, 523
Grenadier Guards: Wegener as member of, 38–42
Großman, Louis, 382, 391
Günther, Ludwig, 556
Gutenberg, Beno, 359, 513, 529, 530; conclusions of, relating to the ocean floors, 530–531, 532; on pole displacement, 551–552
Alfred Wegener Page 123
