Lives of the Eminent Philosophers

by Pamela Mensch

  74,75 In order that time might exist, the sun, moon, and planets were created. And in order that the number of the seasons might be definite, and living things might possess number, god kindled the light of the sun. The moon is in the circle directly above earth, the sun in the next above that, and the planets in the circles beyond. The universe is wholly animate because it is bound in animate motion.155 And in order that the universe, which had been created in the likeness of the intelligible being, might be complete, the nature of all the other animals was created. Since its pattern contains them, the universe must also contain them. And thus it has gods, which are primarily fiery in nature, and three other kinds of creatures: the winged, the aquatic, and the terrestrial.156 Earth is the oldest of the gods in heaven, and it was created to make night and day. And being central it revolves around the center.157 Now given that there are two causes, it must be affirmed, according to Plato, that some things are due to reason, while others have a necessary cause,158 the latter being air, fire, earth, and water, which, though not elements in the strict sense of the term, are their receptacles.159 They are composed of triangles, and resolve into triangles. The scalene and the isosceles triangle are their constituent elements.160

  A page from Perspectiva Corporum Regularium (Perspective of the Regular Bodies), by Wenzel Jamnitzer, 1568. Engraving by Jost Amman. A compendium of perspectival geometry based on the five Platonic solids, or “regular bodies”—the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron—the book is comprised of five sections, each including twenty-four polyhedral variants.

  76,77 Thus the principles and causes of the things of which there is a model are the two mentioned above: god and matter. Matter is necessarily formless, as is also the case for the other entities that receive form. Of these there is necessarily a cause. Receiving the ideas in one way or another, matter generates substances, and it moves because its power is variable; and because it is in motion it causes those things that are generated from it to move in turn. At first these entities moved in an irrational and irregular manner, but when they began to constitute the universe, insofar it was possible they were made symmetrical and orderly by god. For the two causes existed before the creation of the world—and becoming came third; they were not distinct, however, but only existed in the form of traces and were in no sort of order. When the world came into being, they too acquired order;161 and from all the existing bodies the universe was created. Plato holds that god, like the soul, is incorporeal. For this renders him immune to decay and death. Plato assumes, as has been mentioned, that the ideas are causes and principles whereby the world of natural objects is what it is.

  78,79 About good and evil he had this to say. He maintained that the goal of human life is assimilation to god, and that virtue is sufficient for happiness.162 But it also requires instruments that confer bodily advantages such as strength, health, a keen sensibility, and so forth.163 It also needs external advantages such as wealth, good birth, and reputation. Yet the wise man will be no less happy if these are not present. Moreover, he will engage in public life, marry,164 and refrain from breaking the existing laws.165 To the extent circumstances permit, he will legislate for his own country, unless he sees that the political situation is utterly irremediable owing to excessive partisanship. He believes that gods oversee human affairs166 and that semidivine beings exist.167 He was the first to define the notion of good as that which is linked to whatever is praiseworthy, rational, useful, becoming, and appropriate, all of which are linked to that which is consistent and in harmony with nature.

  80 He also discoursed on the correctness of names,168 and was thus the first to develop a science for correctly asking and answering questions, a science of which he made excessive use. In the dialogues he conceived justice to be the law of god because it is a more effective incitement to do right, lest we be punished, even after death, as evildoers.169 For this he has been felt by some to be overly devoted to myths;170 he intersperses these tales throughout his works in order to deter men from wicked deeds by reminding them that they are ignorant of what awaits them after death.171 These, then, are the doctrines he approved.

  81 Plato divided things, according to Aristotle, in the following manner.172 Among good things, some are in the mind, some in the body, and some are external. For example, justice, wisdom, courage, temperance, and so forth are in the mind; beauty, a good constitution, health, and strength are in the body; while friends, a good reputation, the prosperity of one’s country, and wealth are external. Thus there are three kinds of goods: goods of the mind, goods of the body, and external goods.

  There are three kinds of friendship:173 one is natural, another social, and another hospitable. By natural friendship we mean that which parents have for their offspring and kinsmen for one another; the other animals have also inherited this form. By social friendship we mean that which arises from intimacy and has nothing to do with kinship; for example, that of Pylades for Orestes.174 The friendship between host and guest comes about between strangers as the result of an introduction or letters of recommendation. Thus friendship is natural, social, or hospitable. Some add a fourth kind, namely, erotic.

  82,83 There are five forms of government: one is democratic, another is aristocratic, a third oligarchic, a fourth monarchic, and a fifth tyrannical. The democratic form is that in which the people wield power and choose their magistrates and laws. The aristocratic form is that in which power is exercised not by the rich or the poor or the illustrious, but by the best citizens. An oligarchy exists whenever offices are held by those who meet property qualifications; for the wealthy are fewer than the poor. Monarchy is regulated either by law or by heredity. In Carthage it is regulated by law, for there the sovereignty is for sale.175 In Lacedaemon and Macedonia it is hereditary; for there they select the king from a certain family. Tyrannical government is that in which the people, subjugated by either fraud or force, are governed by an individual. Thus government is either democratic, aristocratic, oligarchic, monarchic, or tyrannical.

  There are three kinds of justice: one is concerned with gods, another with men, and another with the departed. For those who sacrifice according to the laws and take care of the temples clearly revere the gods. And those who repay loans and return deposits act honestly toward men. And those who take care of tombs clearly show respect for the departed. Thus there is justice toward gods, toward men, and toward the departed.

  84 There are three kinds of knowledge: practical, productive, and theoretical. Architecture and shipbuilding are productive; for the work produced by them can be seen. Politics, flute playing, harp playing, and so forth are practical; for they produce nothing visible, but they perform something: in one case a man plays the flute, in another the harp, and in another he engages in politics. Geometry and harmonics and astronomy are theoretical; for they neither perform nor produce anything. But the geometer examines how lines relate to one another; the student of harmonics investigates sounds; and the astronomer studies the stars and the universe. Thus some knowledge is theoretical, some practical, and some productive.

  85 There are five kinds of medicine: pharmacological, surgical, dietetic, diagnostic, and palliative. Pharmacological medicine cures sickness by administering drugs; surgical medicine heals by cutting and cautery; dietetic medicine alleviates illness by altering the diet; diagnostic medicine determines the nature of sickness; and palliative medicine provides immediate relief from pain. Thus the branches of medicine are pharmacological, surgical, dietetic, diagnostic, and palliative.

  86 There are two kinds of law, the written and the unwritten. The law that governs how we live in cities is written; that which arises by custom is called unwritten law; for example, the prohibition against walking naked in the marketplace or wearing women’s clothes. There is no specific law forbidding this, but we are prohibited from such conduct by an unwritten law. Thus law is either written or unwritten.

  87 There are five kinds of speech. One is the kind politicians use i
n the assembly; this is called political speech. Another kind is that which the orators use in their written compositions, whether for praise, censure, accusation, or defense. This is called rhetorical speech. The third kind is that which private citizens use for conversing with one another; this is called private speech. Another kind is that used by those who engage in an exchange of short questions and answers. This is called dialectical speech. The fifth kind is that which craftsmen use for discussing their own subjects; this is called technical speech. Thus speech is political, rhetorical, private, dialectical, or technical.

  Plato’s Cave, by Marcel Dzama, 2015. Watercolor, gouache, and graphite, four parts; 71.1 x 55.9 cm overall, each part 35.6 x 27.9 cm.

  88 There are three kinds of music. One employs only the mouth, like singing. The second employs both the mouth and the hands, as when the harp player sings to his own accompaniment. The third employs only the hands, as in harp playing. Thus music may employ either the mouth alone, or both the mouth and the hands, or only the hands.

  89 There are four kinds of nobility. First, if the ancestors are handsome, gentle, and righteous, their descendants are said to be noble. Secondly, if the ancestors have been princes or magistrates, their descendants are said to be noble. Thirdly, if the ancestors are renowned, either for military leadership or athletic success, we call their descendants noble. Fourthly, if a man proves generous and magnanimous, he too is said to be noble. And this is the highest form of nobility. Thus nobility depends on ancestors who are excellent, powerful, or renowned, or on one’s personal integrity.

  Plato as a Musician, Indian (Mughal Empire), c. 1600.

  There are three kinds of beauty. The first is the kind that elicits praise, for example a form that pleases the eye. Another is the kind that provides something useful; thus an instrument, a house, and the like are beautiful because of their utility. Lastly, laws and practices and so forth are beautiful because they are beneficial. Thus one kind of beauty is concerned with praise, another with utility, and another with procuring benefits.

  90 The soul is divided into three parts. One part of it is rational, another appetitive, and a third aggressive. The rational part is the cause of deliberation, reasoning, understanding, and so forth. The appetitive part is the cause of the desire to eat, to have sexual relations, and so forth. The aggressive part is the cause of boldness, pleasure, pain, and anger. Thus one part of the soul is rational, another appetitive, and a third aggressive.

  91 There are four kinds of perfect virtue: wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance. Of these, wisdom is the cause of correct conduct, justice of honest dealing in partnerships and transactions. Courage enables a man not to abandon his post, but to stand firm in dangers and emergencies. Temperance imparts mastery over desires, so that we are not enslaved by any pleasure, but lead an orderly life. Virtue thus includes wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance.

  92 Rule has five divisions. One is rule according to law, another according to nature, a third according to custom, a fourth by heredity, and a fifth by force. When those who govern cities are elected by the citizens, they rule by law. Those who rule by nature are the males, not only among human beings but in the animal world as well; for everywhere the males generally dominate the females. Rule by custom is that which caretakers exercise over children, and teachers over their students. Rule by heredity is what is said to prevail among the Lacedemonians; for the office there belongs to a certain family. This is also the case in Macedonia; for there too the office is hereditary. Others, who have obtained power by force or fraud, govern the citizens against their will. This is called rule by force. Thus rule is either by law, by nature, by custom, by heredity, or by force.

  93,94 There are six kinds of rhetoric. When orators exhort the people to make war or to form an alliance with someone, that kind of rhetoric is called persuasion. When they demand that the people not fight or form an alliance, but remain at peace, it is called dissuasion. A third kind is used when a speaker declares that he has been injured by someone whom he claims has done him great harm; this kind is called an accusation. A fourth kind is used when a speaker declares that he has done nothing wrong and that his conduct is not at all objectionable; this kind is called a defense. A fifth kind is used when a speaker speaks well of another and declares him to be noble and honorable; this is called an encomium. A sixth kind is used when the speaker declares someone to be unworthy; this is called a censure. Thus the forms of rhetoric include encomium, censure, persuasion, dissuasion, accusation, and defense.

  95 Effective speaking has four aspects: what one should say, at what length one should speak, to whom one should speak, and at what moment one should speak. As for what one should say, it is that which will be expedient for the speaker and the hearer. The length at which one should speak is that which is neither more nor less than sufficient. To whom one should speak: if one is addressing older persons, one’s discourse must be tailored to older listeners; if addressing the young, it must be tailored to the young. As for the moment at which one should speak, it should be neither too early nor too late; otherwise the speaker will miss the mark and his speech will not succeed.

  96 There are four ways of conferring benefits. One may benefit another with money, physical assistance, knowledge, or speech. Financial assistance to one who is in need eases his plight. Personal assistance is given whenever one comes to the aid of those who are being beaten. Those who educate, practice medicine, and offer instruction in something valuable confer benefits by means of knowledge. Whenever a man appears in court to defend another and speaks effectively on his behalf, he is conferring a benefit by means of speech. Thus one can benefit another with money, physical help, knowledge, or speech.

  97 There are four ways in which things are accomplished and completed. Things may be accomplished by legal action, as occurs when a decree is passed and is confirmed by law. Things may be completed in accordance with nature, as the day, the year, and the seasons are completed. Things may be completed by art, for example by the builder’s art, by which a house is completed; or by the shipbuilder’s art, by which vessels are completed. Things may be accomplished by chance when matters turn out otherwise than one expects. Thus things may be accomplished and completed in four ways: by law, by nature, by art, or by chance.

  There are four kinds of ability. First, whatever we are able to do with the mind, namely to reason and understand. Second, whatever we are able to do by means of the body; for example, to march, to give, to take, and so forth. Thirdly, whatever we are able to do with a multitude of soldiers or a great deal of money; hence a king is said to have great ability. Fourthly, there is the ability to do and suffer good and evil; for example, we are able to fall ill, and to be educated, and to regain health, and so forth. Thus ability may be in the mind, the body, in armies and resources, or in acting and suffering.

  98 There are three kinds of benevolence. One is by way of greetings, as when certain people address everyone they meet and extend a welcoming hand. Another is seen when someone comes to the aid of every person in distress. Another is that which makes certain people fond of hosting dinners. Thus benevolence is expressed by greetings, by conferring benefits, or by hosting dinners and entertainments.

  99 Happiness has five aspects. One aspect of it is sound judgment, a second keen sensibility and physical health, a third success in one’s undertakings, a fourth a good reputation among men, a fifth an abundance of money and worldly goods. Sound judgment is the result of education and broad experience. Keen sensibility depends on our physical organs: that is, if someone sees with his eyes, hears with his ears, and if his nose and mouth correctly register the appropriate objects. Such is keen sensibility. Success is achieved whenever a man attains his ends in the right way, as befits a good man. A man has achieved a good reputation when he is well spoken of. A man is prosperous when he is so amply supplied with the necessities of life that he can afford to benefit his friends and discharge his public obligations handsomely. A man who possesses
all these things is perfectly happy. Thus the aspects of happiness are sound judgment, keen sensibility and physical health, good fortune, a good reputation, and prosperity.

  Three views of a bronze statue of an aristocratic boy, Roman, 27 BC–AD 14. This life-size statue was found on the island of Rhodes. The youth wears a Greek cloak (himation), rather than a Roman toga—a token of Roman admiration for Greek ways.

  100 Of the arts there are three kinds. The first includes mining and forestry; for these provide materials. The second includes metal-working and carpentry, which transform the materials; for the smith makes weapons out of iron, while the carpenter uses timber to make flutes and lyres. The third division puts what is made to use; horsemanship, for example, uses bridles, warfare uses weapons, and music uses flutes and the lyre. Thus of art there are three kinds: the first, the second, and the third.

  101 Good is divided into four kinds. One is the possessor of virtue, whom we declare is individually good. Another is virtue itself and justice, which we declare are good. A third includes such things as food, suitable exercise, and medicines. The fourth kind that we declare is good includes such things as the art of flute playing, acting, and the poetic art. Thus there are four kinds of good: first, the possession of virtue; second, virtue itself; third, food and beneficial exercise; and fourth, flute playing, acting, and the art of poetry.

  102 Whatever exists is bad, good, or indifferent. We call bad that which can always do harm; for example, poor judgment, folly, injustice, and so forth. The opposites of these are good. As for the things that sometimes benefit, but sometimes harm—for example, walking and sitting and eating—or which are wholly unable to benefit or harm, these things are neither good nor bad. Thus all things that exist are good, bad, or neither good nor bad.