Early Dynastic Egypt
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Third Dynasty step pyramids: both Sekhemkhet’s step pyramid and the step pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan have corridors of store-rooms which branch off the main axis before the burial chamber and encircle it on three sides (Roth 1993:44; for plans of both substructures, see Lauer 1962:210, fig. 58). The Step Pyramid complex is just that: a combination of many distinct elements (Lauer 1962: pl. 13), each of which must have had its own symbolism and significance. The lack of contemporary figured or written evidence ‘confronts us with a major problem of interpretation’ (Kemp 1989:55); we depend upon earlier and later parallels, especially the funerary enclosures at Abydos, and upon later written sources such as the Pyramid Texts.
THE COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLEX
The complex comprises two principal types of structure: largely dummy buildings, and buildings with ‘working’ interiors. The difference between the two types of building may reflect either a chronological or a functional distinction (Kaiser 1969 and Lauer 1988, respectively). If the latter, the dummy buildings may have been intended as primarily symbolic, whereas the functional buildings may have been designed for the funeral ceremonies and for the celebration of the king’s mortuary cult.
The most prominent feature of the entire complex is the Step Pyramid which covers the burial chamber in the centre of the enclosure. Initially, however, the tomb was covered by a simple mastaba (M1). This preliminary stage has been attributed to Netjerikhet’s presumed predecessor, Sanakht (Lauer 1957:164); this theory is now disproved by the recent discoveries at Abydos which confirm that Netjerikhet succeeded Khasekhemwy as king. Outside the limits of the mastaba, to the east, lay the galleries which seem to have been intended for the burial of other members of the royal family. The change from a mastaba superstructure to a step pyramid represented a complete change of plan. Construction in horizontal layers of stone was replaced by angled courses of masonry for greater stability, directing the stress inwards towards the centre of the monument. This building technique became the standard one for Third Dynasty step pyramids. At first, a pyramid of four steps (P1) was built over and around the original mastaba. Subsequently, in a third major change of plan, the pyramid was enlarged to the north and west, and converted into a six-stepped construction (P2) (Lauer 1988:6–7). The substructure of the Step Pyramid combines two different elements: galleries approached from above via shafts, and rooms approached from the end via a staircase or sloping corridor (Firth and Quibell 1935, II: pl. 23; Lauer 1962: pl. 14b). These may have drawn upon two different traditions, exemplified in the First and Second Dynasty royal tombs at Saqqara and Abydos respectively (Kaiser 1992:176–85).
Like the pyramid, the entrance colonnade seems to have been built in stages. The earliest section seems to be the small shrine with a niched façade to the south of the main corridor. It has been suggested that the statue base of Netjerikhet bearing the name and titles of Imhotep, discovered south of the southern enclosure wall, was originally dedicated in this shrine (Helck 1972:97). The shrine may be compared with the small building immediately inside the gateway of the Shunet ez-Zebib and the corresponding building inside Peribsen’s funerary enclosure (Kaiser 1969:9). A theory based upon later religious rituals holds that the shrine was the building in which kingship was passed to
the next ruler by his deceased predecessor (or the assembly of royal ancestors) manifest as a white baboon, the h -wr (Helck 1972:97).
The ‘Great Court’ which extends in front of the pyramid to the south seems likely to have replicated a standard element in the Egyptian royal palace: a formal setting for the ‘appearance of the king’ in which he might take part in important ceremonies, such as the reception of tribute (Kemp 1989:57–9). A platform at the northern end of the court, against the base of the Step Pyramid (Kemp 1989:58, fig. 19A), may represent the elevated dais where the king would appear enthroned on the occasion of his ritual appearances and to review the prisoners and booty from foreign campaigns, as depicted, for example, on the Narmer macehead.
A second, smaller courtyard occupies the eastern side of the complex. Dummy shrines line both sides of the court, and a temple (named ‘Temple T’) lies to the west. The key to understanding this element of the complex is a throne platform with a double staircase in the south of the court. Depicted in First Dynasty inscriptions and later temple reliefs, such a platform was intimately associated with the Sed-festival. Indeed, it became the hieroglyphic determinative for the expression hb-sd, ‘Sed-festival’. This festival has been discussed in Chapter 6. Clearly, the second or ‘Sed-festival court’ was designed for the eternal celebration of this pre-eminent festival of kingship (Kemp 1989:61–2). It is unlikely that it was ever used for a real Sed-festival during the king’s lifetime (cf. Lauer 1988:10) since most of the buildings are dummy constructions, filled with rubble.
One of the least understood elements of the complex is the second, miniature tomb built within the southern enclosure wall (Kemp 1989:55). Designated the ‘South Tomb’, there is no general consensus on its purpose or symbolism. Parallels have been drawn between the South Tomb and the small satellite pyramids associated with Old Kingdom royal tombs (Lauer 1968:98; Lehner and Lacovara 1985:174). The most plausible explanation is that the South Tomb housed the king’s ka-statue (H.Altenmüller 1972:3). Certainly, the ‘burial chamber’ beneath the South Tomb is too small to have contained a coffin of normal proportions. A survey of royal burials from the Early Dynastic period to the New Kingdom suggests that two separate chambers—one for the king’s body, the other for his ka—was the usual arrangement (H.Altenmüller 1972:5–6). Support for this hypothesis may be provided by a dismantled canopy-frame found in association with the satellite pyramid of Khafra at Giza. It may be compared with the wooden bier ‘found in the T-shaped magazine off the south side of the entrance corridor’ of Netjerikhet’s South Tomb (Lehner and Lacovara 1985:174).
Two of the most enigmatic parts of the Step Pyramid complex seem to have been incorporated into the final design at a relatively late stage: the North Court and the so- called ‘Western Massif. The precise purpose of the North Court is difficult to establish, as much of it was left unfinished (H.Altenmüller 1972:7). One scholar has suggested that the North Court was probably not intended as an open court at all, but rather as a spoil- dump for the adjacent constructions, levelled to form a platform (Lauer 1936:186). Because it belongs to a later phase in the development of the complex, parallels for its distinctive features have been sought, perhaps misguidedly, in the royal mortuary complexes of the Old Kingdom, rather than in those of the First and Second Dynasties. The strong connection between the royal mortuary cult and the solar cult in the Fifth Dynasty, and the suggestive location of Userkafs pyramid and mortuary temple next to the North Court, is thought by some to be significant for the interpretation of this element
of the Step Pyramid complex (H.Altenmüller 1972:8–9). In particular, the large platform in the North Court has been interpreted as an early solar platform (H.Altenmüller 1972; Brinks 1979). However, this hypothesis has been firmly rejected by other scholars (for example, Stadelmann 1983:375). More plausibly, the platform may have been a large altar for the presentation of offerings (Stadelmann 1983:375–6; Lauer 1988:8). It may be no coincidence that subterranean store-rooms nearby were found to contain supplies of grain and fruit which might have been intended as offerings. In addition, two rows of poorly built, dummy granaries stood close to the northern enclosure wall. Though ‘absurdly narrow’ for working granaries (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:77), they may have been symbolically connected with the North Court platform. A series of galleries beneath the North Court poses further problems of interpretation. The chambers that were found to be ankle-deep in dried fruit and grain (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: v) also yielded seal- impressions of Khasekhemwy and Netjerikhet (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:141, figs 22, 19– 21 respectively). A sealing of Sanakht is mentioned as coming from the same location (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: 8), but this may be a mistake since no further discussion or illustration
of the sealing appears. The galleries were divided in two by a small blocking wall, and it was on the face of this wall that the seal-impressions were discovered. Access to the galleries was via two shafts (Lauer 1936:184, fig. 208). The galleries have no direct relation with the magazines built over them during the last, unfinished phase of the Step Pyramid complex. They could easily have belonged to an earlier (Second Dynasty), unfinished gallery tomb (Stadelmann 1985:303). A further set of subterranean galleries in the north-west quarter of the North Court comprises four parallel descending corridors which give access to a long, transverse gallery, off which open further chambers (Lauer 1936:186). The complex may represent another abandoned tomb of the Second Dynasty. Here Mariette found a travertine offering-table, decorated with lions’ heads (Cairo Museum Catalogue Générale 1322), although the galleries are unlikely to have been the object’s original location. It may have been moved from a nearby temple or offering- place (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: 77). The quality of workmanship suggests that it may have stood in a royal mortuary temple (Stadelmann 1985:303), strengthening the case for the existence of Second Dynasty royal tombs in the vicinity. The mudbrick remains found under the Western Massif may have been part of such a mortuary temple (Stadelmann 1985:303). In addition to these two sets of underground chambers, the North Court contains three unfinished stairway tombs of the Third Dynasty which were probably begun before the extension of the Step Pyramid complex northwards, then abandoned after the incorporation of the North Court (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:77).
As its name suggests, the Western Massif occupies almost the entire western side of the Step Pyramid complex. It comprises three conjoined sections, two outer flat-topped structures (I and III) and a central, arched section (II). With its distinctive superstructure and underground galleries (Lauer 1936:182, fig. 206, 1962: pl. 14b), the Western Massif seems to form a single, planned building, earlier than the Step Pyramid itself (Stadelmann 1985:300–1). The initial excavators of the Step Pyramid complex describe the ‘elaborate underground galleries’ beneath the Western Massif, with ‘smaller galleries or chambers at right angles, cut in the soft rock’ (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:17, 71). The similarity to mastaba substructures of the Second and Third Dynasties was noted (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:71). The entrance to the underground galleries lies to the north. From a descending shaft, further, perpendicular shafts lead directly to the main, central gallery.
This, in turn, is linked to two outer galleries by cross-passages. In plan, therefore, the galleries bear a close resemblance to the Hetepsekhemwy galleries. The burial chamber, if there was one, is likely to have lain at the south-west corner of the monument, now inaccessible. Large numbers of stone vessels, apparently uninscribed, were found in the galleries, especially the southern part (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: 17). The dangerous condition of the galleries may have prevented their full exploration (Stadelmann 1985:302). It is, perhaps, surprising that no seal-impressions were found in the galleries. This could be due to their incomplete exploration, but it is also noteworthy that only a few sealings of Netjerikhet were found in the galleries beneath the Step Pyramid (Stadelmann 1985:302). It is tempting to see in the Western Massif another Second Dynasty royal tomb, later incorporated by Netjerikhet into his grand plan. In the same way, the superstructures of the Hetepsekhemwy and Ninetjer tombs may well have been ‘casualties of Djoser’s construction work to the north, since any but the most minimal superstructure…would have interfered with the construction of his massive enclosure wall’. The presence of large numbers of stone vessels inscribed for Hetepsekhemwy (17) and Ninetjer (13) amongst the funerary provisions of the Step Pyramid complex suggests that ‘Djoser apparently had special access to the possessions of these earlier kings’. This would be easily explained if Netjerikhet swept away the superstructures of their tombs and ‘appropriated the contents’ (Roth 1993:48, n. 49). (Since the name of Djer occurs on 13 vessels, often associated with a building called smr-n rw, it is possible that this institution, too, lay in the vicinity and ‘fell victim to Djoser’s workmen’ [Roth 1993:48, n. 49].)
Examination of the topography in the vicinity of the Step Pyramid complex has led one Egyptologist to posit the existence of a 40-metre-wide dry moat, extending around the Step Pyramid complex on all four sides, and doubling back on itself to the south to form the hieroglyph wsh t, ‘broad court’ (Swelim 1988). However, only the western and perhaps northern channels can be traced on the ground with any likelihood, and the theory has so far received only limited support (F.D.Friedman 1995:40–1, fig. 25).
The step pyramid complex of Sekhemkhet
Sekhemkhet began his own step pyramid complex to the south-west of his predecessor’s monument (Plate 7.2). The enclosure measures some 500 metres by 200 metres and the pyramid at its centre was planned as a seven-stepped structure, in contrast to Netjerikhet’s six-stepped pyramid. The construction technique shows notable advances in stone architecture: the enclosure wall uses larger blocks which would have given greater strength and cohesion, as well as allowing economies in the quarrying work; the fine Tura limestone for the outer casing was employed more sparingly than in Netjerikhet’s complex. Like the Netjerikhet complex, Sekhemkhet’s step pyramid complex seems to have been built in stages. The foundations of an early southern enclosure wall were uncovered, the same distance from
Plate 7.2 The unfinished step pyramid complex of Sekhemkhet at Saqqara (author’s photograph).
the pyramid as the northern enclosure wall. Hence, the complex seems originally to have comprised a rectangle with the step pyramid at its centre (Lauer 1968:99). The enclosure was subsequently enlarged to the north and south; the southward extension was more restricted due to the more difficult terrain, hence the asymmetry of the complex in its final form (Lauer 1968:99). Due to limited excavation inside the enclosure, it is unclear how many of the other buildings surrounding the pyramid had been started when work on the complex was abandoned (Edwards 1993:62). The substructure of the pyramid seems to have been largely completed, even though the monument above ground was abandoned at an early stage. A descending corridor in the north face of the pyramid gives access to the burial chamber, which was roughly hewn into the bedrock and surrounded on three sides by storage magazines. These number 132 in total and open off a transverse east-west corridor with arms extending southwards at both ends (Edwards 1993:61). The stone sarcophagus discovered in the burial chamber was intact, but contained no body, probably indicating that it was unacceptable to bury a king in an unfinished pyramid. Incidentally, it is the earliest royal stone sarcophagus from Egypt (Edwards 1993:62).
One element that was finished is the South Tomb. Located closer to the pyramid than in the complex of Netjerikhet (Lauer 1968), the South Tomb was part of the original plan, and seems to have been covered by a small mastaba measuring 60 by 30 cubits (32 by 16 metres) (Lauer 1968:100).
The ‘layer pyramid’ at Zawiyet el-Aryan
Another, unfinished step pyramid dated to the Third Dynasty is the socalled ‘layer pyramid’ at Zawiyet el-Aryan (Dunham 1978: xi). Only the lowest courses of the
pyramid’s inner core have been preserved, and even the substructure seems to have been left unfinished. The ‘layer pyramid’ seems to have been planned as a monument of six or seven steps, but work was clearly abandoned at an early stage, judging by the total absence of any funerary equipment (Edwards 1993:65). The similarities between the Zawiyet el-Aryan pyramid and Sekhemkhet’s monument are striking, both in the form of the superstructure and in the overall plan of the subterranean chambers. A date close to the reign of Sekhemkhet seems certain for the ‘layer pyramid’ (Edwards 1993:64).
The pyramid at Maidum
Considerable uncertainty surrounds the precise date of the pyramid at Maidum. Its initial stages have generally been attributed to Huni, last king of the Third Dynasty (for example, Wildung 1969a: 135), even though no inscription from the site bears his name. New Kingdom graffiti inside the pyramid itself show that Egyptians of later per
iods believed Sneferu to have been the builder of the monument (there is no doubt that Sneferu was responsible for the pyramid in its final form) and the fact that several of Sneferu’s relatives are buried in nearby mastabas may lend weight to this theory (Edwards 1993:93). The choice of location is unusual, Maidum lying a considerable distance from the Memphite necropolis which had served Huni’s Third Dynasty forebears. The proximity of the Seila pyramid, dated to the early part of Sneferu’s reign, may indicate that the Maidum pyramid was also built by this king (Seidlmayer 1996a: 206). However, two pyramids are already known to have been built for Sneferu at Dahshur, and it is perhaps unlikely, although not impossible (Edwards 1993:95–7), that he could have completed three massive funerary monuments within a single reign. Huni is allotted a reign of identical length (twenty-four years) by the Turin Canon, and would have had ample opportunity to construct an impressive mortuary complex. The fact that the tomb of Metjen, a high official under Huni, was located at Saqqara has suggested to some that the tomb of the king himself lay nearby. However, the tombs of officials seem to have been located at Saqqara throughout the Early Dynastic period, irrespective of changes in the location of the royal tomb (Roth 1993:50). In the absence of a more plausible candidate—and recent excavations have decisively rejected the Gisr el-Mudir enclosure at Saqqara as an unfinished step pyramid complex of the Third Dynasty (Mathieson and Tavares 1993; Bettles et al. 1995)—the pyramid at Maidum, in its initial form, may have been intended as Huni’s funerary monument.