The Meritocracy Trap
Page 83
meritocracy
charisma of, x, xii, xiv, xviii, xix, 63–64, 79, 109, 155, 260
defenses of, 14–15, 31
educational inequality as triumph of, 149–50
elite acquiescence to, 44–45
as failure, 269–70
as inevitable, 5–6, 15–16, 259–60
as integrated system, xvi, xx, 12, 68
norms of, 260
Obama-era redemption of, 66–67, 68
overview, 71–73
paradox of, 79
as positive alternative to aristocracy, ix, xi, 14, 263–64
as promising equality of opportunity, ix, xiv, xix, 26, 148
as return to aristocracy, 15, 47, 260–62, 268–69
shared dissatisfaction with, xviii–xx, xxi–xxiii, 44, 71, 274–75
meritocratic divide. See class divide
meritocratic inequality, xii–xiii
and class divide, xvi, 201–2
as comparable to racism, 50, 201
extent of, 13, 104–6, 294fig, 295, 296fig, 297
and identity politics, 61
and income defense industry, 55
international comparisons, 13
as justified, 14, 16, 24, 31, 63–64, 73, 106–7, 109–10, 265, 269–70
and leisure, 85, 86, 292fig
middle-class failure to stop, 108–9
and populism, 64–65
redistribution as cure for, 273–74
and work intensity, 85–86, 89, 292fig
as zero-sum game, xxii, 153
See also class divide; educational inequality; labor market polarization; middle-class resentment
Merkel, Angela, 271
midcentury society
college graduate cohort, 251
consulting industry, 245
consumption, 216–17, 220
dampening of class divide, 46–47, 199–201, 217, 223–24
democratic culture, 29, 47, 170, 197–201
elite education, 6, 7, 111–12, 298fig, 299
elite income, 13, 18, 199
elite leisure, 81–82
elite work, 4, 11, 157, 292fig
entertainment industry, 178
finance industry, 81, 163, 165, 167, 238, 303
geographic distribution, 223–24
hiring practices, 203
income-based achievement gaps, 300fig, 301
management, 169, 170–72, 174, 241, 243
middle-class education, 298fig, 299
middle-class prosperity, 3, 20–21, 29, 99, 107
middle-class savings, 218
middle-class work, 9, 20–21, 165, 170, 179, 181–82, 188, 292fig
and New Deal, 274
political equality, 70–71
poverty, 77–78, 99–100, 101–2, 103, 106, 107, 293fig
public sector wages, 55–56
racial divide, 26, 50, 99, 131
retail industry, 177
sexism, 99, 187
social mobility, 255–56, 308fig, 309
social solidarity, 47, 51
technical innovation at work, 185, 248
wealth as emancipatory in, 41
workplace training, 140–41, 142, 144, 159, 171, 203
See also aristocracy
middle class
communities centered on, 21–24, 28–29
debt, 218–19, 233–36, 306fig
elite contempt for, xviii, 61–62, 69, 70
and gender norms, 209–10
midcentury work, 9, 20–21, 165, 170, 179, 181–82, 188, 292fig
numerical decline of, 201–2
middle class, burdens on
and mortality rates, 30–31, 65–66, 70, 188
and preservation focus, 22–23, 29–30
and rule of law, 55
and valorization of industry, ix, xiv, xvii, 24, 30–31, 60, 62–64, 187–88, 206
See also educational inequality; labor market polarization; middle-class resentment
middle-class resentment, 62–70
and educational inequality, 152–53, 278
and nativism, 63–64, 65–66, 67
and populism, xvi–xvii, 64–66, 188, 271, 272
progressive critiques and, 272–73
and Trump presidency, 63, 67–70
and Trump’s dark vision, xvii, 67–68
mid-skilled jobs, loss of. See labor market polarization
military, 204–5, 236
millennial generation, xv–xvi
MIT, 246
Morgan, J. P., 81
Morgan Stanley, 82, 191
mortality rates, middle-class, 30–31, 65–66, 70, 188
Mulvaney, Mick, 53
Nadal, Rafael, 84
nativism, 63–64, 65–66, 67
need-blind admissions, 113
nepotism. See legacy admissions practices
New Deal, 274
nineteenth century
absence of management, 169–70, 242
alienated labor, 40
industry/income opposition, 3–4
technical innovation at work, 247–48, 250
work hours, 185
nurses. See medical profession
Obama, Barack, and Obama presidency, 58, 61, 66, 68, 107, 110
Obama, Michelle, 69
Occupy Wall Street movement, 110
Okun, Arthur, 273, 286
opioid epidemic, 31, 70
opportunity, equality of
meritocracy as promising, ix, xiv, xix, 26, 148
meritocracy as suppressing, xiii–xiv, 147–48, 151, 254–55
See also educational inequality
Organization Man, The (Whyte), 157
organization men, 10
Other America, The (Harrington), 99–100, 101
“Our Invisible Poor” (Macdonald), 101
Oxford University, xi
Pacific Bell, 246
Palin, Sarah, 66
Palo Alto
elite childhood burdens in, 41–42
elite educational investment in, 145
elite work intensity in, 191
geographical class concentration in, 48
housing prices in, 226
midcentury dampening of class divide in, 46–47, 223
political leanings in, 70
part-time workers, 174
Paulson, John, 17
payday loans, 218
payroll tax, 281–82
personal services, 12
philanthropy. See elite service promise
Philippon, Thomas, 363nn(163–64), 365nn(168–69), 372n(183), 388n(235), 389n(239), 396n(267), 403nn(302–3)
Phillips Exeter Academy, 126, 211–12, 213
physicians. See medical profession
Piketty, Thomas, 15, 88, 316nn(13, 15, 17), 337nn(91–92), 338n(93), 375n(185), 378n(199), 393n(249), 395nn(260–61)
place. See geographical class concentration
political correctness complaints, xvii, 60
politics, 211–14
See also elite political power
populism, xvi–xvii, 64–65, 188, 211, 271, 272, 278
postgraduate schooling, 139–44, 183, 184–85, 252
Pound, Roscoe, 261
poverty
current rates of, 21, 102–4, 293fig
early twentieth century, 77
and education, 136
and industry, 3
and leisure, 103
and low-end inequality, 98
midcentury, 77–78, 99–100, 101–2, 103, 106, 107, 293fig
War on Poverty, 101–2, 107, 109, 273
prejudice, denunciation of. See identity politics
prenatal stress, 119
preschools, 7, 33, 122–23
primogeniture, 261
Princeton University, 112, 277
prisoner’s dilemma, 190
private schools, 114, 125–26, 133
privilege, responsibilities of. See elite service promise
progressive critiques. See critiques of meritocracy
property ideology, 55, 65
public schools, 126–28, 133, 151–54
public sector wages, 55–56
race
and labor market polarization, 206–7
midcentury divide, 26, 50, 99, 131
and nativism, 63–64, 65–66, 67
Rajan, Raghuram, 353n(131), 363n(165), 364nn(166), 367n(175), 387nn(234), 388n(236), 389n(239), 404n(306)
rat-race equilibrium, 189–90
Rauh, Joshua, 314n(5), 335n(88), 336nn(89–90), 363n(164)
Reagan, Ronald, 104, 108, 233
Reardon, Sean F., 301, 319n(26), 347n(120), 348–49n(123), 353n(131), 355n(135), 356n(136), 385n(226), 402–3n(300–301)
redistribution, 273–74
reform agenda, xxii–xxiii
and cycle of meritocracy, 283–84
democratic equality as goal of, 285–86
and education reform, 275, 276–79
and mid-skilled job promotion, 275–76, 279–83
and redistribution, 273–74
and shared interest, xxii, xxiii, 274–75, 285
See also critiques of meritocracy
regulation
elite resistance to, 53, 54–58
and mid-skilled job promotion, 279–81
Reich, Robert, 319n(25), 328n(56), 351n(127), 352n(128), 353n(131), 359n(141), 362n(157), 368n(177), 369n(179), 370n(181), 390n(244), 398n(277)
religion, 48, 208–9, 211
Rensi, Ed, 159, 160, 161, 175, 204
Reshef, Ariell, 363nn(163–64), 365nn(168–69), 372n(183), 388n(235), 389n(239), 396n(267), 403nn(302–3)
resource curse, 256–57
restaurants, 221, 222
retail industry
and class divide, 222
growth of, 180
innovation-based labor market polarization in, 9
labor market polarization in, 9, 177–78
luxury goods, 219–22, 224–25
midcentury, 177
thrift goods, 217–18
Rhode, Deborah L., 315n(10), 332n(82), 333n(84), 376–77nn(190, 192), 378n(192)
Right to Be Lazy, The (Lafargue), 185
Rise of the Meritocracy, The (Young), 258–59, 260
Rockefeller, David, 18
Romney, Mitt, 61, 66–67, 69
Rowling, J. K., 178
rule of law, 54–58, 65
See also democracy, suppression of
Ryan, Paul, 61, 66–67
Saez, Emmanuel, 316nn(13), 329n(58), 337nn(91–92), 338nn(93), 378n(199), 382nn(218), 384n(222), 386nn(232), 400n(282), 401n(283)
Safeway, 240–42, 247
same-sex marriage, 210–11
Sanders, Bernie, 67
SAT scores. See achievement gaps
Schlesinger, Arthur, 99, 101
Sears, 217
securitization, 166–67, 236, 238
service industry, 210
Shaw, George Bernard, 260
sibling rivalry, 208
Silicon Valley, 191, 251
Singer, 170–71
Siu, Henry, 304fig
Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom (law firm), 243, 244
Skaggs, M. B., 240
skill-based technical change. See innovation-based labor market polarization
skill fetishization, 5
See also innovation-based labor market polarization
social mobility, xiv, 20, 27, 255–56, 308fig, 309
Sotomayor, Sonia, xii
Spengler, Joseph, 248
Stakhanov, Alexey Grigoryevich, 98, 243
Stanford University, 41
St. Clair Shores
current stagnation of, 21–23, 29–30, 105
democratic culture in, 28–29
educational inequality in, 24, 25, 26, 41, 145
geographical class concentration in, 48, 228
housing prices in, 226
midcentury dampening of class divide in, 46–47, 217, 223
midcentury middle-class work in, 171, 203
midcentury social mobility in, 255
middle-class job losses in, 179
middle-class mortality in, 31
middle-class prosperity in, 20–21, 77, 99, 272
political leanings in, 69, 70, 272
Stephenson, Bill, 200
Stiglitz, Joseph E., 235, 316n(17), 325n(51), 388n(235), 393n(251)
subcontracting, 174, 280
suicide, 42
sumptuary codes, 46, 216
supermodels, 85
superordinate workers, 5
See also elite work
super-skilled work. See elite educational investment; elite work; innovation-based labor market polarization
Target, 218
Tate, Jack, 6
tax policy
and class divide, 199
and education reform, 276–77, 279
and elite educational investment, 261
and income defense industry, 58
and mid-skilled job promotion, 281–82
regressive nature of, 108, 233
Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 171
Tea Party, 66
technical innovation at work
and Industrial Revolution, 247–48, 250
international comparisons, 253–54, 307fig
midcentury, 185, 248
and reform agenda, 283–84
See also innovation-based labor market polarization
test scores. See achievement gaps
Theory of the Leisure Class, The (Veblen), 79, 80–81
thrift finance, 217–18
time divide, 85, 86–87, 292fig
Tobin, James, 112
Touati, Bernard, 221–22
travel industry, 221
Trump presidency, 67–70
anti-immigrant policies, 271
and class divide, xvii, xviii, 69, 214
and dark vision of U.S. society, xvii, 67–68
and income defense industry, 58
and middle-class resentment, 63, 67–70
and nativism, 63
and populism, 67, 211
risks of, xxiii
supporters’ lack of belief in, 272
and work, 69–70
tutoring, 128–29
Uber, 172, 174, 187
UBS, 191
undermatching, 148–49
unions
and classical liberalism, 214
decline of, 88, 174
and education policy, 53
and innovation-based labor market polarization, 248
and management, 171, 172
and midcentury middle-class prosperity, 20–21, 179
United Colors of Benetton, 174
United Parcel Service (UPS), 174
Vance, J. D., 69
Veblen, Thorstein, 79, 80–81, 86–87, 95, 98, 189, 193, 207, 210, 219
Vietnam War, 44, 204–5, 237
Volkswagen, 174
von Furstenberg, Diane, 222
Wachtell, Lipton (law firm), 243, 244–45
wage subsidies, 282–83
Wallace, David Foster, 155
Wall Street. See finance industry
Wall Street: Men and Money (Mayer), 81
Walmart, 9, 53, 172, 177–78, 217–18
Walton Foundation, 53
Waltons, 9
Warner, Jack, 200
Warner, Mark, 283
War on Poverty, 101–2, 107, 109, 273
Warren, Elizabeth, 107
wealth. See elite wealth
Wealth and Power in America (Kolko), 100
Whyte, William, 157
Williams, Joan C., 330nn(64–65), 331nn(68, 70), 347n(120), 372n(182), 379n(202), 380n(210), 381nn(215)
Wilson, Charles Erwin, 172
Wilson, William Julius, 201
Winters, Jeffrey, 327nn(54–55), 328n(58), 329n(58), 336n(89), 342n(108), 384n(222), 392n(248), 397nn(274)
Wodehouse, P. G., 77
Wolfe, Tom, 172
women and gender
elite motherhood, xv, 119, 120, 209
and elite work intensity, 192
leisure under aristocracy, 86–87, 207
midcentury inequality, 99, 187
work, technical innovation at. See innovation-based labor market polarization; technical innovation at work
work intensity. See elite work intensity
workplace training, 140–41, 142, 144, 159, 171, 203, 253
work-study jobs, 229–30
World Inequality Database, 316nn(13), 319n(23), 335n(87), 337n(91), 341n(104), 377n(191)
World War I, 80
World War II, xvii, 77, 81, 204
Yale Law School
author’s attendance, xi
competitive admissions, 6–7
elite student body, 144
graduation ceremonies, xii, xxi–xxii
and legacy admissions practices, 17
quality of education, 8
student awareness of meritocracy, xv–xvi
student political views, 213–14
Yale University, x, 6, 25, 41, 111–14, 214
Young, Michael, 258–59, 260
Young, Robert R., 200
Zuckerberg, Mark, 94–95, 98, 147
Zucman, Gabriel, 329n(58), 337nn(91–92), 338n(93), 382nn(218), 384n(222), 386nn(232), 393n(249), 395n(261)
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Daniel Markovits is Guido Calabresi Professor of Law at Yale Law School and founding director of the Center for the Study of Private Law.
* A graphical representation of these trends appears in Figure 1.
* A graphical representation of these trends appears in Figure 2.
* A graphical representation of these trends appears in Figure 3.
* A graphical representation of these trends appears in Figure 4.
* A graphical representation of these trends appears in Figure 5.