8. Ronald Wright, Stolen Continents: The Americas through Indian Eyes since 1492 (Boston, 1992), 45.
9. Bartolomé de Las Casas, In Defense of the Indians, ed. Stafford Poole (Dekalb, Ill., 1974), 201–2.
10. Ibid., 237.
11. Thomas, Conquest, 74.
12. Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin America: A History, trans. W. A. R. Richardson (Berkeley, Calif., 1974), 76.
13. David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven, 1992), 51.
14. Herbert E. Bolton, The Spanish Borderlands (New Haven, 1921), 148–49.
15. Carl Ortwin Sauer, Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by Europeans (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), 131.
16. Ramón A. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500–1816 (Stanford, Calif., 1991), 15, 12.
17. Ibid., 15.
18. Ibid., 73–74.
19. Tom Lea, The King Ranch, 2 vols. (Boston, 1957), 1:112.
20. Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528–1990 (New York, 1998), 36.
21. Charles W. Hackett, ed., Historical Documents Relating to New Mexico, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1923–37), 1:435.
Chapter 2: Contest of Cultures
1. Carl Ortwin Sauer, Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by the Europeans (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), 59–60.
2. John Bartlett Brebner, Explorers of North America, 1492–1806 (New York, 1955), 90.
3. Sauer, Sixteenth Century North America, 88.
4. Ibid.
5. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 1610–1791, 73 vols. (Cleveland, 1896–1901), 54:280–81; Steven Mintz, ed., Native American Voices: A History and Anthology (Saint James, N.Y., 1995), 58.
6. Sauer, Sixteenth Century North America, 80, 88.
7. Ibid., 88.
8. Walter O’Meara, Daughters of the Country: The Women of the Fur Traders and Mountain Men (New York, 1968), 70, 140.
9. Olive Dickason, “From ‘One Nation’ in the Northeast to ‘New Nation’ in the Northwest: A Look at the Emergence of the Metis,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 6 (1982): 7.
10. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 5:113.
11. Sophie White, Wild Frenchmen and Frenchified Indians: Material Culture and Race in Colonial Louisiana (Philadelphia, 2013), 81.
12. Mintz, Native American Voices, 52–53.
13. James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Conquest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York, 1985), 107; W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534–1760, rev. ed. (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1986), 48.
14. Richard Hakluyt, Discourse on Western Planting, facsimile ed. (London, 1993), 123.
15. Thomas Hariot, A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, facsimile ed. (New York, 1972), 28.
16. Lyon Gardiner Tyler, ed., Narratives of Early Virginia, 1606–1626 (New York, 1907), 36; Samuel G. Drake, Biography and History of the Indians of North America (Boston, 1841), 352.
17. Drake, Biography and History, 353.
18. Two Broad-sides against Tobacco . . . (London, 1676), 6.
19. Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York, 1982), 103; Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York, 1975), 24.
20. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983), 88.
21. Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 124; Alfred A. Cave, The Pequot War (Amherst, Mass., 1996), 46.
22. Cronon, Changes in the Land, 56.
23. Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 191.
24. Jennings, Invasion of America, 223.
25. Edmund S. Morgan, Roger Williams: The Church and the State (New York, 1967), 122.
26. Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (Minneapolis, Minn., 1980), 50.
27. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York, 1998), 94.
28. Richard Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (Middletown, Conn., 1973), 101.
29. Ibid., 173.
30. Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 61.
31. Ibid., 118.
32. Ibid., 153, 155.
33. Ibid., 184.
Chapter 3: The Struggle of Empires
1. Terry Jordan and Matti Kaups, The American Backwoods Frontier: An Ethnic and Ecological Interpretation (Baltimore, 1989), 2.
2. Albert Cook Myers, ed., Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey, and Delaware, 1630–1701 (New York, 1912), 235.
3. Benjamin Franklin, Writings (New York, 1987), 367; Thomas Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population, ed. Michael P. Fogarty, 2 vols. (New York, 1958), 1:305–6.
4. Jacqueline Peterson, “Prelude to Red River: A Social Portrait of the Great Lakes Métis,” Ethnohistory 25 (1978): 41–67.
5. W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534–1760, rev. ed. (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1974), 132.
6. Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1992), 155, 206.
7. Ronald Wright, Stolen Continents: The New World through Indian Eyes since 1492 (Boston, 1992), 130.
8. Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 268.
9. Ibid., 263, 266.
10. Francis Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York, 1988), 402; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge, 1991), 248–49.
11. White, Middle Ground, 269.
12. Gregory Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815 (Baltimore, 1992), 34–35.
13. Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 447.
14. Ibid., 463n.; John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Writings of George Washington, 39 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1931–44), 2:458.
15. Hector Chevigny, Russian America: The Great Alaskan Venture, 1741–1867 (Portland, Oreg., 1965), 50.
16. Philip L. Fradkin, The Seven States of California: A Natural and Human History (New York, 1995), 276; George H. Phillips, The Enduring Struggle: Indians in California (San Francisco, 1981), 24.
17. Carey McWilliams, Southern California Country (New York, 1946), 29; The First French Expedition to California: Lapérouse in 1786, trans. Charles N. Rudkin (Los Angeles, 1959), 75.
18. Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Paxton Riots and the Frontier Theory (Chicago, 1967), 27.
19. Richard Maxwell Brown, The South Carolina Regulators (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), 135.
Chapter 4: The Land and Its Markers
1. Colin G. Calloway, The World Turned Upside Down: Indian Voices from Early America (Boston, 1994), 149.
2. Ronald Wright, Stolen Continents: The Americas through Indian Eyes since 1492 (Boston, 1992), 139.
3. Richard W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (New York, 1960), 72.
4. Wright, Stolen Continents, 227.
5. Henry Steele Commager, Documents of American History (New York, 1949), 120.
6. Ibid., 123.
7. Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York, 1984), 752–53.
8. Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (1950; reprint ed., Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 127–28, 206.
9. R. Douglas Hurt, The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830 (Bloomington, Ind., 1996), 147.
10. Richard Henry Lee, The Letters of Richard Henry Lee, ed. James Ballagh, 2 vols. (New York, 1914), 2:425.
11. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account o
f the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York, 2001), 256.
12. John Mack Faragher, Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (New York, 1992), 70.
13. Ibid., 5, 60, 326; Harriet Louisa Arnow, Seed Time on the Cumberland (New York, 1960), 169.
14. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge, 1991), 441.
15. Francis Paul Prucha, ed., Documents of United States Indian Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1990), 10.
16. Ibid., 14.
17. Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed., The American Indian and the United States: A Documentary History, 4 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1973), 4:2286–90.
18. Prucha, Documents of United States Indian Policy, 19; Philip Weeks, ed., The American Indian Experience (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1988), 104.
19. Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O’Connor, and Martha Sandweiss, eds., The Oxford History of the American West (New York, 1994), 125–26.
20. Faragher, Daniel Boone, 250.
21. Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York, 1969), 197.
22. Ibid., 203, 206.
23. R. David Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet (Lincoln, Nebr., 1984), 131, 31–32.
24. Alvin M. Josephy Jr., The Patriot Chiefs: A Chronicle of Indian Resistance (New York, 1969), 159; Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (New York, 1977), 188.
25. R. David Edmunds, Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership (Boston, 1984), 131, 145; John Mack Faragher, Sugar Creek: Life on the Illinois Prairie (New Haven, 1986), 31–32.
26. Wright, Stolen Continents, 210.
27. Ibid., 213.
28. Ibid., 217.
Chapter 5: Finding Purchase
1. John Mack Faragher, Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (New York, 1992), 7, 298.
2. Ibid., 277, 299–300.
3. Ibid., 300–301; Faragher, “They May Say What They Please: Daniel Boone and the Evidence,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 88 (Autumn 1990): 391.
4. William Appleman Williams, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York, 1969), 50; Lloyd C. Gardner, Walter F. LaFeber, and Thomas J. McCormick, Creation of the American Empire (Chicago, 1973), 31; Richard W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (New York, 1960), 78, 69.
5. Francis Wrigley Hirst, The Life and Letters of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1926), 390.
6. E. Wilson Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy (Norman, Okla., 1934), 225–26; Bobby Lee, “The Price of Purchase” (unpublished ms., 2015).
7. Bernard DeVoto, The Journals of Lewis and Clark (Boston, 1953), 60, 256–57.
8. Ibid., 90.
9. Donald Jackson, ed., The Journals of Zebulon Pike, 2 vols. (Norman, Okla., 1966), 1:442.
10. Edwin James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, 3 vols. (Philadelphia, 1823), 2:361.
11. John Ewers, Artists of the Old West (New York, 1965), 26.
12. George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Conditions of the North American Indian, 2 vols. (1841; reprint ed., New York, 1973), 1:xiv, 3, 13; Jules David Prown et al., Discovered Lands, Invented Pasts: Transforming Visions of the American West (New Haven, 1992), 6.
13. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 1:16.
14. Laura L. Mielke, Moving Encounters: Sympathy and the Indian Question in Antebellum Literature (Amherst, Mass., 2008), 128.
15. Bernard DeVoto, The Course of Empire (Boston, 1952).
16. Charles Frances Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, 12 vols. (Philadelphia, 1874–77), 4:438–39.
17. Fred W. Powell, ed., Hall J. Kelley on Oregon (Princeton, N.J., 1932), 60.
18. Julie Roy Jeffrey, Converting the West: A Biography of Narcissa Whitman (Norman, Okla., 1991), 53.
19. Jeffrey, Converting the West, 108, 164, 168.
20. Ibid., 182.
21. Anne F. Hyde, Empires, Nations, and Families: A New History of the North American West, 1800–1860 (Lincoln, Nebr., 2011), 109.
22. James Fenimore Cooper, The Leatherstocking Tales, 2 vols. (New York, 1985), 1:250–324.
23. Martin Ridge and Ray Allen Billington, eds., America’s Frontier Story: A Documentary History of Westward Expansion (New York, 1969), 453–54.
24. William H. Goetzmann and Glyndwr Williams, The Atlas of North American Exploration: From the Norse Voyages to the Race to the Pole (New York, 1992), 159.
Chapter 6: War and Destiny
1. Frederick Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History: A Reinterpretation (New York, 1963), 28; Julian P. Boyd et al., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 41 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1950–2014), 4:237–38.
2. Merk, Manifest Destiny, 29; Robert Sampson, John L. O’Sullivan and His Times (Kent, Ohio, 2002), 193.
3. James D. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 10 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1900), 3:1252.
4. Francis Paul Prucha, ed., Documents of United States Indian Policy (Lincoln, Nebr., 1990), 61.
5. William G. McLoughlin, Cherokees and Missionaries, 1789–1839 (New Haven, 1984), 135–36; “The Diaries of John Quincy Adams: A Digital Collection,” June 30, 1841, www.masshist.org/jqadiaries.
6. Donald Jackson, ed., Black Hawk: An Autobiography (Urbana, Ill., 1964), 101, 108.
7. William C. Davis, A Way through the Wilderness: The Natchez Trace and the Civilization of the Southern Frontier (New York, 1995), 73–74.
8. Joan E. Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York, 1991), 103, 114.
9. Thomas D. Clark and John D. W. Guice, The Old Southwest, 1795–1830: Frontiers in Conflict (Norman, Okla., 1996), 322–23.
10. Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528–1990 (New York, 1998), 37.
11. Andrew J. Torget, Seeds of Empire: Cotton, Slavery, and the Transformation of the Texas Borderlands, 1800–1850 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 144.
12. Susan Prendergast Schoelwer, Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience (Dallas, Tex., 1985), 108.
13. Paul D. Lack, The Texas Revolutionary Experience: A Political and Social History, 1835–1836 (College Station, Tex., 1992), 168.
14. Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier, 42; Torget, Seeds of Empire, 204.
15. Speech of the Honorable John Quincy Adams . . . May 25, 1836 (New York, 1836), 12.
16. Sean Wilentz, ed., Major Problems in the Early Republic, 1787–1848 (Lexington, Mass., 1992), 379.
17. Merk, Manifest Destiny, 31.
18. Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 78.
19. William MacDonald, ed., Select Documents Illustrative of the History of the United States, 1776–1861 (New York, 1898), 352.
20. Wilentz, Major Problems, 543; William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography (New York, 1981), 30.
21. Wilentz, Major Problems, 532–33.
22. Leonard Pitt, The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846–1890 (Berkeley, Calif., 1970), 28–30.
23. Carey McWilliams, North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (1948; reprint ed., New York, 1968), 102–3.
24. Merk, Manifest Destiny, 28.
25. Ibid., 162.
26. Wilentz, Major Problems, 538; John H. Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War: American Opposition and Dissent, 1846–1848 (Madison, Wis., 1973), 116, 144.
27. David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), 17; MacDonald, Select Documents, 369.
28. Howard R. Lamar, ed., The New Encyclopedia of the American West (New Haven, 1998), 748; Carlos G. Vélez-Ibáñez, Border Visions: Mexican Cultures in the Southwes
t United States (Tucson, Ariz., 1996), 292; James W. Parins, John Rollin Ridge: His Life and Works (Lincoln, Nebr., 1991), 99.
29. W. Eugene Hollon, Frontier Violence: Another Look (New York, 1974), 41.
30. Jerry D. Thompson, ed., Juan Cortina and the Texas-Mexico Frontier, 1859–1877 (El Paso, Tex., 1994), 15, 25, 27.
31. D. Michael Quinn, ed., The New Mormon History: Revisionist Essays on the Past (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1992), 61, 67.
32. Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, 2 vols. (Lincoln, Nebr., 1984), 1:346.
33. White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own,” 58–59.
34. James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York, 1988), 55.
35. Ibid., 292, 784, 786.
36. Donald S. Frazier, Blood and Treasure: Confederate Empire in the Southwest (College Station, Tex., 1995), 5.
37. Alvin M. Josephy Jr., The Civil War in the American West (New York, 1991), 80.
38. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 292, 784, 786.
39. William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail of Tears: The Cherokees’ Struggle for Sovereignty, 1839–1880 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993), 210–11.
40. Prucha, Great Father, 1:324, 352.
41. Ibid., 1:439; Gary Clayton Anderson and Alan R. Woolworth, eds., Through Dakota Eyes: Narrative Accounts of the Minnesota Indian War of 1862 (Saint Paul, Minn., 1988), 23.
42. Josephy, Civil War in the West, 109; Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1984), 76.
43. Josephy, Civil War in the West, 277.
44. Ibid., 286.
45. Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (New York, 1970), 79; George E. Hyde, Life of George Bent: Written from His Letters, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman, Okla., 1968), 147.
46. Josephy, Civil War in the West, 307; David Svaldi, Sand Creek and the Rhetoric of Extermination: A Case Study in Indian-White Relations (New York, 1989), 291.
47. Hyde, Life of George Bent, 152.
48. Sol Lewis, ed., The Sand Creek Massacre: A Documentary History (New York, 1973), 280; Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (Minneapolis, Minn., 1980), 539.
49. Hyde, Life of George Bent, 181.
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