Chapter 7: Machine
1. Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York, 2011), xxxii.
2. Rodman Wilson Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848–1880 (New York, 1963), 13–14; Cheryl Elizabeth Wright, “Life in Topsy-Turvy-Dom: Women and Men in Gold Rush California” (senior thesis, Mount Holyoke College, 1987), 3.
3. Malcom J. Rohrbough, Days of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the American Nation (Berkeley, Calif., 1997), 126.
4. Norris Hundley Jr., The Great Thirst: Californians and Water, 1770s–1990s (Berkeley, Calif., 1992), 75; Rohrbough, Days of Gold, 197.
5. Louisa Amelia Knapp Clappe, The Shirley Letters from the California Mines, 1851–1852, ed. Carl I. Wheat (New York, 1949), 121.
6. Richard H. Peterson, Manifest Destiny in the Mines: A Cultural Interpretation of Anti-Mexican Nativism in California, 1848–1853 (San Francisco, 1975), 9, 33, 38.
7. Peterson, Manifest Destiny in the Mines, 36; Edwin Beilharz and Carlos Lopez, eds., We Were Forty-Niners! Chilean Accounts of the California Gold Rush (Pasadena, Calif., 1976), 119–20.
8. Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York, 1993), 193.
9. Ibid., 195.
10. Robert F. Heizer and Alan F. Almquist, The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination under Spain, Mexico, and the United States to 1920 (Berkeley, Calif., 1976), 230, 233.
11. Liping Zhu, A Chinaman’s Chance: The Chinese on the Rocky Mountain Mining Frontier (Niwot, Colo., 1997), 150.
12. Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Hard Traveling: A Portrait of Work Life in the New Northwest (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994), 6.
13. John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988), 40.
14. Ibid., 275.
15. Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: Railroads in the West (New York, 1977), 45.
16. Howard R. Lamar, ed., The New Encyclopedia of the American West (New Haven, 1998), 37.
17. Stuart Daggett, Chapters in the History of the Southern Pacific (New York, 1920), 211; David Lavender, The Great Persuader (New York, 1970), 128–29.
18. J. C. Mutchler, “Ranching in the Magdalena, New Mexico Area: The Last Cowboys” (MA thesis, University of New Mexico, 1992), 22.
19. Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), 173; Roy M. Robbins, Our Landed Heritage: The Public Domain, 1776–1936 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1962), 177, 182.
20. Henry Steele Commager, ed., Documents of American History (New York, 1949), 410.
21. Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer’s Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1897 (New York, 1945), 74–75.
22. Ibid., 62.
23. Smith, Virgin Land, 192.
24. Lamar, New Encyclopedia of the American West, 37; Williams, Great and Shining Road, 122.
25. Williams, Great and Shining Road, 96; Takaki, Different Mirror, 197; William F. Deverell, Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850–1910 (Berkeley, Calif., 1994), 184.
26. Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow, 132.
27. Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 15.
28. Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), 260.
29. Frederick Hale, ed., Danes in North America (Seattle, Wash., 1984), 73–74.
30. Kenneth N. Owens, ed., John Sutter and a Wider West (Lincoln, Nebr., 1994), 67; Rohrbough, Days of Gold, 13; Albert Hurtado, Indian Survival on the California Frontier (New Haven, 1988), 104, 112.
31. Heizer and Almquist, Other Californians, 86.
32. Ibid., 28.
33. George Harwood Phillips, Indians and Indian Agents: The Origins of the Reservation System in California, 1849–1852 (Norman, Okla., 1997), 167; Heizer and Almquist, Other Californians, 26.
34. Hurtado, Indian Survival, 131; Heizer and Almquist, Other Californians, 40, 46, 57.
35. David D. Smits, “The Frontier Army and the Destruction of the Buffalo, 1865–1883,” Western Historical Quarterly 25 (1994): 337.
36. Ibid., 330, 337; John G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks (New York, 1961), 181.
37. Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 39.
38. Ibid., 49–50; Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 7.
39. Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 74–75, 80–81.
40. James C. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem (Lincoln, Nebr., 1965), 32.
41. Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed., The American Indian and the United States: A Documentary History, 4 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1973), 4:2519.
42. Robert M. Utley, The Lance and the Shield: The Life and Times of Sitting Bull (New York, 1993), 73.
43. Ibid., 116.
44. Louise Barnett, Touched by Fire: The Life, Death, and Mythic Afterlife of George Armstrong Custer (New York, 1996), 346.
45. Peter Nabokov, ed., Native American Testimony: A Chronicle of Indian-White Relations from Prophecy to the Present, 1492–1992 (New York, 1991), 108.
46. Ibid., 108.
47. Wayne Moquin, ed., Great Documents in American Indian History (New York, 1973), 228; Utley, Lance and Shield, 179.
48. Arrel Morgan Gibson, The American Indian: Prehistory to the Present (Lexington, Mass., 1980), 392.
49. David Roberts, Once They Moved Like the Wind: Cochise, Geronimo, and the Apache Wars (New York, 1993), 111, 113, 260, 263, 300.
50. “Old Apache Chief Geronimo Is Dead,” New York Times, February 1909.
Chapter 8: A Search for Community
1. John Mack Faragher, Sugar Creek: Life on the Illinois Prairie (New Haven, 1986), 50.
2. Ibid., 51–52.
3. Hamlin Garland, Son of the Middle Border (New York, 1920), 402.
4. Sandra L. Myres, Westering Women and the Frontier Experience, 1800–1915 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1982), 168; Sigmund Diamond, ed., The Nation Transformed: The Creation of an Industrial Society (New York, 1963), 333; Everett Dick, The Sod-House Frontier, 1854–1890 (New York, 1937), 235.
5. Kathleen Underwood, “Schoolmarms on the Upper Missouri,” Great Plains Quarterly 11 (1991): 228.
6. David L. Kimbrough, Reverend Joseph Tarkington, Methodist Circuit (Knoxville, Tenn., 1997), 17; Faragher, Sugar Creek, 160–61; T. Scott Miyakawa, Protestants and Pioneers: Individualism and Conformity on the American Frontier (Chicago, 1964), 201.
7. Faragher, Sugar Creek, 163.
8. Dean L. May, Three Frontiers: Family, Land, and Society in the American West, 1850–1900 (Cambridge, 1994), 197.
9. Sarah Barringer Gordon, “‘The Liberty of Self-Degradation’: Polygamy, Woman Suffrage, and Consent in Nineteenth-Century America,” Journal of American History 83 (1996): 823, 828.
10. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York, 1988), 600; Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (New York, 1977), 158–59, 231.
11. Jane Anne Staw and Mary Swander, Parsnips in the Snow: Talks with Midwestern Gardeners (Iowa City, Iowa, 1990), 195, 201.
12. Nupur Chaudhuri, “‘We All Seem Like Brothers and Sisters’: The African-American Community in Manhattan, Kansas, 1865–1940,” Kansas History 14 (1991–92): 276, 277, 282, 283.
13. Gordon Parks, Voices in the Mirror: An Autobiography (New York, 1990), 1–2, 4.
14. Ibid., 331–33; Gordon Parks: A Poet and His Camera (London, 1969), n.p.
15. Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, 2 vols. (Lincoln, Nebr., 1984), 1:439.
16. Ibid., 1:528–29.
17. Philip Weeks, ed., The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1988), 196.
18. Prucha, Great Father, 2:647; Fred Hoxie, ed., Indians in American History: An Introduction (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1988), 247–48.
19. Prucha, G
reat Father, 2:691.
20. John H. Bodley, Victims of Progress (Palo Alto, Calif., 1982), 108.
21. Prucha, Great Father, 1:342, 441.
22. Weeks, American Indian Experience, 196.
23. Prucha, Great Father, 2:629, 666.
24. Weeks, American Indian Experience, 170.
25. James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890 (1896; reprint ed., Chicago, 1965), 307; Prucha, Great Father, 2:728.
26. Virgil J. Vogel, This Country Was Ours: A Documentary History of the American Indian (New York, 1972), 182.
27. John G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a Holy Man of the Oglala Sioux (1932; reprint ed., New York, 1972), 217, 220–21.
28. Frederick C. Luebke, ed., European Immigrants in the American West: Community Histories (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1998), vii; Luebke, ed., Ethnicity on the Great Plains (Lincoln, Nebr., 1980), 7; Dorothy Burton Skardahl, The Divided Heart: Scandinavian Immigrant Experience through Literary Sources (Lincoln, Nebr., 1974), 239.
29. Luebke, European Immigrants in the West, 61.
30. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude, eds., The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation: Essays in the Social History of Rural America (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985), 276.
31. Robert C. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: The Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835–1915 (Madison, Wis., 1988), 230.
32. April R. Schultz, Ethnicity on Parade: Inventing the Norwegian American through Celebration (Amherst, Mass., 1994), 29, 37, 58, 117.
33. Sinclair Lewis, Main Street (New York, 1920), 26–27.
34. Zona Gale, Friendship Village (New York, 1920).
35. Frederick Russel Burnham, Scouting on Two Continents (Los Angeles, Calif., 1934), 10.
36. Vachel Lindsay, Collected Poems (New York, 1927).
37. Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860–1910 (Berkeley, Calif., 1986), 185–87, 335.
38. Ibid., 332; Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 15; Carey McWilliams, Southern California Country: An Island on the Land (New York, 1947), 90.
39. Brian Masaru Hayashi, “For the Sake of Our Japanese Brethren”: Assimilation, Nationalism, and Protestantism among the Japanese of Los Angeles, 1895–1942 (Stanford, Calif., 1995), 31–32; Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Boston, 1939).
40. Sayler, Laws Harsh as Tigers, 126; Gilbert G. González, Labor and Community: Mexican Citrus Worker Villages in a Southern California County, 1900–1950 (Urbana, Ill., 1994), 49.
41. David Mas Masumoto, Country Voices: The Oral History of a Japanese American Family Farm Community (Del Ray, Calif., 1987), 12; Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919–1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993), 31–32.
42. Masumoto, Country Voices, 2.
43. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place, 52–53; Masumoto, Country Voices, 65–66, 97, 124.
44. Thomas H. Heuterman, The Burning Horse: Japanese-American Experience in the Yakima Valley, 1920–1942 (Cheney, Wash., 1995), 26, 49, 98; Philip L. Fradkin, The Seven States of California: A Natural and Human History (New York, 1995), 145.
45. Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: The History of Issei in United States Agriculture, 2 vols. (New York, 1992), 2:686–87, 690–91.
46. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986 (Austin, Tex., 1987), 112.
47. Ibid., 127.
48. Mario T. García, Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880–1920 (New Haven, 1981), 51.
49. Devra Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold: California Farm Workers, Cotton, and the New Deal (Berkeley, Calif., 1994), 61; George Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–1945 (Berkeley, Calif., 1993), 15.
50. David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), 49; Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis, Minn., 1996), 91; Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York, 1993), 315; Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 94.
51. Weber, Dark Sweat, White Gold, 74; Mitchell, Lie of the Land, 129, 135, 163.
52. Carey McWilliams, The Education of Carey McWilliams (New York, 1978), 75.
53. González, Labor and Community, 189.
Chapter 9: The Urban Frontier
1. John Mack Faragher, ed., Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: “Significance of the Frontier in American History” and Other Essays (New Haven, 1999), 31, 34; Adna F. Weber, The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1899), 20, 27.
2. David Hamer, New Towns in the New World: Images and Perceptions of the Nineteenth-Century Frontier (New York, 1990), 97, 118, 185.
3. Richard Wade, The Urban Frontier: The Rise of Western Cities, 1790–1830 (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), 322.
4. R. Douglas Hurt, The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830 (Bloomington, Ind., 1996), 239.
5. Carl Abbott, Boosters and Businessmen: Popular Economic Thought and Urban Growth in the Antebellum Middle West (Westport, Conn., 1981), 45; Hurt, Ohio Frontier, 247–48.
6. Timothy R. Mahoney, River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820–1870 (New York, 1990), 124–25.
7. Hamer, New Towns in the New World, 182; Charles N. Glaab, “Visions of Metropolis: William Gilpin and Theories of City Growth in the American West,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 45 (1961): 26.
8. J. Christopher Schnell and Katherine B. Clinton, “The New West: Themes in Nineteenth-Century Urban Promotion, 1815–1880,” Bulletin of the Missouri Historical Society 30 (January 1974): 77–78, 80; Jeffrey S. Adler, Yankee Merchants and the Making of the Urban West: The Rise and Fall of Antebellum Saint Louis (Cambridge, 1991), 56.
9. Adler, Yankee Merchants, 130, 134.
10. William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991), 297, 299, 309.
11. Ibid., 297, 299, 309.
12. Weber, Growth of Cities, 228; Gilbert Stelter, “The City and Westward Expansion: A Western Case Study,” Western Historical Quarterly 3 (1973): 189.
13. Richard O’Conner, Iron Wheels and Broken Men: The Railroad Barons and the Plunder of the West (New York, 1973), 101.
14. Earl Pomeroy, The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (Seattle, Wash., 1965), 134.
15. Bascom N. Timmons, Jesse H. Jones: The Man and the Statesmen (New York, 1956), 81; David G. McComb, Houston: The Bayou City (Austin, Tex., 1969), 112, 116–17.
16. Rodman Paul, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848–1880 (New York, 1963), 86.
17. Pomeroy, Pacific Slope, 125.
18. Carey McWilliams, Southern California Country: An Island on the Land (New York, 1946), 98, 100.
19. Robert M. Fogelson, The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850–1930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 67.
20. Raymond Dasmann, The Destruction of California (New York, 1966), 129.
21. Fogelson, Fragmented Metropolis, 110; Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York, 1986), 77.
22. Fogelson, Fragmented Metropolis, 85; Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985), 122.
23. McWilliams, Southern California Country, 235.
24. Ibid., 212, 237; James M. Cain, The Postman Always Rings Twice (New York, 1934), 150.
25. Bengt Ankerloo, “Agriculture and Women’s Work: Directions of Change in the West, 1700–1900,” Journal of Family History 4 (1979): 118.
26. Hamlin Garland, Main-Travelled Roads (New York, 1899), 118–19; The Needs of Farm Women, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Reports, 103 (Washington, D.C., 1915), 12–14.
27. David Peterson del Mar, What Trouble I Have Seen: A History of Violence against Wives (Cambridge, Mass., 1996), 1, 24, 25, 31; Susan Armitage and Elizabeth Jameson, eds., The Women’s West (Norman, Okla., 1987), 113.
28. Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880–1930 (Chicago, 1988), 17–18.
29. Ibid., 18; Mary Murphy, Mining Cultures: Men, Women, and Leisure in Butte, 1914–41 (Urbana, Ill., 1997), 99.
30. Bradford Luckingham, “Immigrant Life in Emergent San Francisco,” Journal of the West 12 (1973): 600.
31. Pomeroy, Pacific Slope, 127; Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York, 1993), 215.
32. Charles Wollenberg, “Mendez v. Westminster: Race, Nationality and Segregation in California Schools,” California Historical Quarterly 53 (1974): 318; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), 207; Victor G. and Bred de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ’: A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York, 1972), 44.
33. Yung, Unbound Feet, 49, 129.
34. McWilliams, Southern California Country, 160.
35. Ibid., 232.
36. Ibid., 135.
37. Fogelson, Fragmented Metropolis, 200; Martha Menchaca, The Mexican Outsiders: A Community History of Marginalization and Discrimination in California (Austin, Tex., 1995), 53; Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York, 1990), 163.
38. Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville, Va., 1995), 26, 27.
39. Ibid., 249, 257; Fogelson, Fragmented Metropolis, 204.
40. George Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–1945 (New York, 1993), 200.
41. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 213; Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1995), 56.
42. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 141, 144–45, 225.
43. Horne, Fire This Time, 257; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 253.
44. Harry H. L. Kitano, Japanese Americans: The Evolution of a Subculture (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969), 3; Brian Masaru Hayashi, “For the Sake of Our Japanese Brethren”: Assimilation, Nationalism, and Protestantism among the Japanese of Los Angeles, 1895–1942 (Stanford, Calif., 1995), 41, 136.
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