Pandolfini’s Ultimate Guide to Chess

by Bruce Pandolfini

  Student: I know, it depends.

  Teacher: That’s right. Still, it’s true that castling always brings one rook closer to the center, and closer to its rook partner. Castling also unblocks the king’s starting square, making it easier for the rooks to support each other directly.

  Student: So it’s important that the rooks be able to defend each other?

  Teacher: Yes. This way they back each other up for both defense and attack. When rooks defend each other along the home rank, they are said to be connected. As a rule, you should aim to connect the rooks fairly early. Once the rooks have been connected, the opening’s initial stage is generally over, and you’re probably in a transitional phase between the later opening and the early middlegame. At that point, you better keep your eyes open.

  Student: Could you explain more specifically why it seems that players usually castle kingside instead of queenside?

  Teacher: They don’t necessarily castle kingside because it’s the best choice. Often they castle kingside because it’s faster and simpler: There’s one less piece to get out of the way. The real dilemma doesn’t arise until you have the chance to castle either way. You should determine which side is best to castle on by analyzing the particular position under consideration. Don’t resort to mindless rules of thumb, as if memorizing them confers true wisdom. It doesn’t. To get at the truth, it might help to ask certain types of probing questions. For example, will the king be safer on the kingside or on the queenside? Which side has the best cover of protective pawns? It’s usually safer, after all, to castle where the pawns have not been moved. Which side has the greatest concentration of opposing forces? Usually, you’ll want to castle on the other side, away from the bigger army. On which side do you intend to attack? You’ll mainly want to castle on the side away from where you expect to make line-opening pawn moves. There also may be other reasons to castle one way or the other, and these factors, regardless how subtle, might be paramount in making a choice.

  Student: I know we went over this when we started our very first lesson. If I remember rightly, you said that I could still castle even if I had been checked earlier (see page 26).

  Teacher: You remember rightly, all right. The right to castle is not forfeited, even if the king in question has been checked, as long as the check is ended in a way that keeps the necessary conditions for castling still intact. You may still castle after being checked as long as, in ending the check, the king doesn’t move and castling is still legal. So if you’ve answered a previous check either by interposition or capture, and not by moving your king, you may still be able to castle and do great things.

  Student: Is castling permitted if I move my king once and then move it back to its original square?

  Teacher: No, you can’t castle once you’ve moved the king, no matter what.

  Student: Suppose it’s not the king that’s moved, but the rook involved in the castling act. Can I castle with a rook that’s moved once and then moved back to its original square?

  Teacher: The rook can’t pull this either. The rules state clearly that neither the king nor the castling rook may have previously moved in the game. It doesn’t matter if they wind up on their original squares after moving away and back. Fortunately, you start the game with two rooks, and if you haven’t done something with the other one, you might be able to castle the other way.

  Student: Can I castle and give check to the enemy king with the same move?

  Teacher: Castling is usually a defensive move to get the king to safety. But since activating the rook is also offensive, you may be able to throw in an offensive check, or an even more offensive checkmate, as part of the castling move. You can start with either piece, although it’s customary to touch the king first and then the rook. At one time the rules mandated moving the king before the rook. Moving the rook first was construed as a rook move and you weren’t allowed to castle. Today the rules are more understanding, though some opponents aren’t.

  Student: Can I castle and capture on the same move?

  Teacher: No. You capture by replacing an enemy unit with your own. When you castle, the king and rook move across unoccupied intervening squares. It’s against the rules to castle if any of these squares are occupied. Since early castling is usually desirable, we can appreciate another reason to develop minor pieces so quickly. The squares separating the king from one of the rooks must be unoccupied to make castling possible, so minor pieces must be developed just to create castling potential. That potential can be crucial to survival. For example, if your king is going to be threatened on the next move, it can be quite helpful to have the option of castling. If two pieces still block the way, however, it’s impossible to protect yourself by castling immediately, and your king may wind up stuck in the center. This explains why, in our little game, the move 7. Bd3 is particularly desirable. It deals with the threat while preparing kingside castling.

  Student: It seems that players tend to be more concerned with castling themselves than preventing their opponents from castling. Shouldn’t that be just as important?

  Teacher: Absolutely. If an idea is good for you, it’s good for you to stop your opponent from using the same idea. Obviously, it can be effective strategy to prevent your opponent from castling. To this end:

  • Try to keep the enemy king pinned down in the center.

  • Try to hit the enemy king with a combined assault of all your pieces.

  • Be willing to sacrifice some material in order to do this, if your chances seem reasonable.

  • Once your opponent’s king is confined to the center, don’t relent. Keep hammering away to prevent your opponent from regrouping and organizing a defense.

  Student: Are you going to castle now on your seventh move?

  Teacher: You betcha. Black castles, 7 … 0-0 (diagram 227).

  Diagram 227. After Black castles on move seven.

  Student: So you feel you have the time to play a defensive move like castling?

  Teacher: Don’t forget—castling is hardly just a defensive move. Here, White must be careful. If he keeps his king centralized, Black may have enough time to harass actively along the e-file by shifting his rook to e8. When the e-file is at least half-open to the enemy’s advantage, it’s potentially dangerous to leave your king sitting on its original square at el. Though White’s e-pawn would screen the White king from Black’s pressuring rook at e8, the threats against the then pinned e4-pawn might become quite serious. White might become overtaxed, trying to extricate his king to safe quarters while also securing his menaced e-pawn. There’s an old Yiddish expression that goes “You can’t dance at two weddings at the same time,” and it applies nicely to chess. You may not be able to cope with contemporaneous threats. Look for double threats, on both attack and defense. Try to avoid situations where you’ll be faced with dual responsibilities.

  Student: Suppose I were now to attack your bishop by 8. a3 (diagram 228)? Would that be good?

  Diagram 228. After the possibility of 8. a3?

  Teacher: Not really, because it’s an unnecessary waste of time that practically compels Black to help himself out. After 8. a3, Black willingly exchanges bishop for knight (8 … Bxc3 9. bxc3), which gains vital time. After White takes back on c3 (diagram 229), it would be Black’s move, and he’d be free to go ahead with his own plans. You might also note that White’s bishop can no longer access the a3-square, because in this line White’s own a-pawn is there.

  Diagram 229. In a side variation after White takes back, 9. bxc3.

  Student: Instead of taking on c3, why doesn’t Black just retreat his bishop to a5 (diagram 230), maintaining the pin?

  Diagram 230. If Black were to answer 8. a3 by 8 … Ba5.

  Teacher: If, instead of taking on c3, Black’s bishop retreats to a5, no time would be gained, for White would then have the freedom to play whatever relevant move he wanted. So much of exchanging has to do with time, trying to arrange it that the next free move is yours, not your opponent�
�s. Black wouldn’t retreat to a5 because taking on c3 is much stronger.

  Student: What do you mean by free move?

  Teacher: A move is free if you can continue with your own ideas, if you have the initiative. A move is not free if you must respond to your opponent’s move in a way that doesn’t allow you to pursue your own plans, if your opponent has the initiative.

  Student: So after the imaginary 8. a3? Bxc3+ 9. bxc3 (diagram 229), how should Black continue?

  Teacher: Black should continue operations against the e4-pawn. The slow but effective way would be to seize the e-file with 9 … Re8 (diagram 231). Black would be threatening the e-pawn twice, and White, only defending the e4-pawn once, would have to expend a tempo to protect it again.

  Diagram 231. Continuing the imaginary line: Black’s rook threatens e4.

  Student: So, should Black play 9 … Re8?

  Diagram 232. Black just takes the e4-pawn: Why prepare to do what can be done at once?

  Teacher: Not if he sees the better move, the immediate capture of the e-pawn with his knight, 9 … Nxe4!.

  Student: Why can’t I take your knight for free, 10. Bxe4 (diagram 233)?

  Diagram 233. If White were to take the knight, 10. Bxe4.

  Teacher: After the obvious 10. Bxe4, Black can regain the piece by 10 … Re8 (diagram 234), pinning the bishop to the king.

  Diagram 234. Black pins the bishop.

  Student: Why can’t I just protect my bishop with 11. f3 (diagram 235)?

  Diagram 235. White defends the e4-bishop by 11. f3.

  Teacher: Even if White should defend his bishop with a pawn by 11. f3, Black merely attacks the helplessly pinned e4-unit with his own pawn (say 11 … f5—diagram 236), and in the next move recaptures it with his f-pawn.

  Diagram 236. Black attacks the pinned bishop with a pawn.

  If White then moves out of the pin by the natural 12. 0-0, Black winds up a pawn ahead after 12 … fxe4 13. fxe4 Rxe4 (diagram 237). This variation reinforces important principles, and it demonstrates the classic difficulty triggered by unnecessary pawn moves.

  Diagram 237. After 12. 0-0 fxe4 13. fxe4 Rxe4, winning a pawn.

  Student: It’s interesting how this example illustrates the trouble you can get into if you waste a move, the way I considered doing with 8. a3 (diagram 228).

  Teacher: You’re right. The example also demonstrates the problems that can ensue from the delay of castling, especially after the other side has castled and is prepared for full-scale attacking operations against the stuck and centered king. And finally, the variation demonstrates the value of pins.

  Student: Pins can be insidious.

  Teacher: True enough. But these sly devices don’t necessarily just happen. They’re usually set up, and they often are the logical outcome of a carefully planned assault, which sometimes take the perpetrator a long way. In our own case, we’ll have to move to the next lesson to appreciate just how far along a long way is.

  LESSON 12

  THE MIDDLEGAME, EXCHANGE VALUES, HOW TO ANALYZE

  Student: Are we in a middlegame yet?

  Teacher: Not quite, although we’re getting there. The middlegame, or second phase of a chess game, is characterized by planning and implementation. The player’s goal is to accumulate advantages that can be converted into something concrete and decisive. But the middlegame doesn’t fit nicely into simple categories to facilitate study. Unlike openings, the starting point is seldom the same, and unlike endgames, the resulting positions are harder to classify and research, mainly because there tend to be numerous units on the board often placed in intricate situations.

  Student: I know that time plays a crucial function in the opening. How important is it to the middlegame?

  Teacher: To be sure, time is almost always a critical factor in any phase of the game. If you have a move or two on your opponent in a middlegame, you might be able to gain control of a file, occupy a key square, prevent your opponent’s plan from being realized, or simply get your attack going first. These are meaningful advantages. Look for them. In those middlegames where time is a little less important, structural features may play a greater role, and getting the upper hand might be more a matter of avoiding weaknesses and maneuvering pieces to better squares, regardless of how many moves it takes.

  Student: In the interests of saving time, let me suggest my next move. I think White should castle, 8. 0-0 (diagram 238). I’m just not certain what you’re going to do in response to it. Would you play 8 … d6? Diagram 238. After White castles, 8. 0-0.

  Diagram 238. After White castles, 8. 0-0.

  Teacher: Black could continue here with 8 … d6 (diagram 239), opening the way for the queen-bishop and guarding e5. Though that advance would stop an immediate movement of the White e-pawn to e5, White would still have a spatial advantage in the center.

  Student: Why is that?

  Teacher: Generally, the side with the farthest advanced center pawn has a space edge. When neither side has a center pawn positioned farther ahead than the opposition, then we must consider other facets of the situation, such as which side has better-placed and more mobile pieces. To evaluate who has the edge when neither side has a clear space supremacy based on pawn structure, we should compare territory controlled and influenced within the enemy’s half of the board. Admittedly, this is not always so easy to do. But here the relative pawn placements, with the White king-pawn on its fourth rank vs. the Black queen-pawn on its third rank, confer a spatial superiority for White.

  Diagram 239. White would have a central space edge after 8 … d6.

  Student: What if Black chooses a different strategy? Suppose, instead of playing his d-pawn one square to d6, he moves it two squares to d5?

  Teacher: If Black were to play 8 … d5, it would be to swap d-pawn for e-pawn to get rid of the White center pawn altogether. Afterward, Black would have the only pawn in the center, and this might give him enough chances there to secure the draw.

  Student: You mean Black is playing for a draw?

  Diagram 240. After 8 … d5.

  Teacher: Neither side is really playing for a draw. But since Black starts a move behind, he must first establish equality before he can obtain the advantage. You must first go through step one before reaching step two. Real fighters want to win regardless of the color with which they start the game. But let’s not divagate too far here. Get back to what’s happening in the center. Is the White king-pawn now safe?

  Student: On the surface, Black is attacking the White e-pawn twice, once with his knight and once with his d-pawn. The White e-pawn, on the other hand, appears to be defended twice, by the c3-knight and d3-bishop. The e4-pawn is attacked twice, but defended twice, so it’s probably safe for the moment. Black isn’t threatening to win it.

  Teacher: True, when like defenders are involved, a unit is adequately protected if the number of defenders equals the number of attackers. This is not necessarily so when unlike attackers and defenders are facing each other. For example, if two enemy pawns are threatening a friendly pawn defended in toto by a queen, rook, bishop, and knight, the friendly pawn is not adequately guarded. If either enemy pawn captures it, none of the friendly pieces can take it back without a serious sacrifice of material, because whichever piece takes back will be captured in turn by an enemy pawn. Even if the second enemy pawn is then taken, the two enemy pawns together can be worth only two pawns, which is at least one pawn less than the value of any piece—knights and bishops being worth about three pawns each. So the friendly side must come out behind.

  Student: Why is so much emphasis placed on material? What’s it got to do with strategy?

  Teacher: Just about everything. In fact, it’s almost always the key determinant in formulating a strategy. By first consulting the material situation, you immediately have a barometer that suggests where to go and what to do. I pointed out in an earlier lesson that if you’re ahead in material, you should play to exchange pieces, hoping to head for an endgame, where the extra fo
rce will be decisive (see page 173). If you’re behind in material, you should avoid exchanges, so that you steer clear of a simplifying endgame and maintain your chances to drum up counterplay.

  Student: Do I just count up pieces and pawns, totaling their points to see who’s ahead?

  Teacher: You might want to avoid using the word points, because it gets away from the process of making comparisons, which is what chess thinking is about. Don’t say a knight is worth three points. Say it’s worth about three pawns. Furthermore, instead of totaling points, which doesn’t tell you as much as you might think, you should compare and contrast—for calculation’s sake, forgetting similarities and noting differences.

  Student: You’re not going to tell me that knights and bishops aren’t worth three points each, are you?

  Teacher: Actually, neither type of minor piece is worth exactly “three points,” or more properly, exactly three pawns. In most situations, each is worth a little more than three pawns, more like three pawns and an incalculable fraction, with bishops tending to have a slight advantage in a majority of, though not all, positions.

  Student: Are you telling me that I can’t rely on the material values we’ve taken for granted since Lesson 2?

  Teacher: No, of course you can. In fact, you have to. But as you become a more advanced player, you should also temper your calculations, realizing the values pointed out earlier are highly subject to the changing fortunes of the game. Not only does the relative worth of a piece tend to fluctuate slightly from position to position, but in extreme cases the change can be quite great. A pawn that reaches the back rank to become a new queen by force is surely more valuable than a feckless knight, removed from the main theater.

  Student: I think I’m beginning to understand some things about Steinitz’s positional chess theory, at least that it’s a theory and that I have a ways to go to understand it.