Pandolfini’s Ultimate Guide to Chess

by Bruce Pandolfini

  Teacher: One of the most difficult things in chess is to keep all your material. It’s not really possible to get through a game without any of your forces being captured. All you can hope for is that the results of the exchange favor you. Maybe you’ll have opportunities to take things for nothing. If so, look for these desserts and gobble them. If waiting for these oversights is too passive for you—and it should be—you can take a more active stance. Use your pieces, not pawns, to attack the opponent’s undefended targets. Try to set up double attacks, threatening two or more enemy units simultaneously. If you keep up the pressure, issuing constant attacks, your opponent is eventually bound to miss a threat or two and you’ll be poised to come away with material gain. This may seem simplistic, but it’s exactly how most chess games go between average players. Just watch. Even better, just do.

  Student: I know we’ve talked about this a lot, but could you just go over one more time what to do once a material advantage has been gained?

  Teacher: Once you’ve obtained a material advantage, you should exchange pieces, thereby emphasizing your advantage while reducing the enemy’s potential for counterplay. Exchanges impair your opponent’s capacity to resist. Your goal should be to eliminate all the opponent’s pieces, forcing a very clear and simple endgame, one in which you have total control. Don’t be afraid to trade queen for queen, rook for rook, and minor piece for minor piece. When trading minor pieces, aim to swap bishops for bishops and knights for knights, avoiding endings of knight versus bishop, or bishop versus knight, where your remaining minor piece may be less effective. As a rule, avoid disturbances that could lead to imbalance and throw you off your game.

  Student: And clarify this again, too: Should I trade all my forces, pawns included?

  Teacher: You have to be careful here. The trading-down policy doesn’t pertain to pawns. You prefer to win pawns, not trade them. As you trade pieces, the defender’s ability to guard the pawns decreases, and you might get them for nothing.

  Student: Is there a problem with trading too many pawns?

  Teacher: You bet. Exchanging too many pawns, particularly in minor-piece endings, could give your opponent surprising opportunities to draw. For example, the ending of minor piece and pawn versus minor piece is drawn if the defender sacrifices the piece for the pawn. After the sacrifice, the attacker doesn’t have sufficient mating material.

  Student: Could you show me an example?

  Diagram 285. Black can force a draw by sacrificing his bishop for the g-pawn.

  Teacher: It is Black’s move in diagram 285. By sacrificing his bishop, 1 … Bxg6 2. Bxg6 (diagram 286), the position becomes drawn, with White unable to queen his pawn by force.

  Diagram 286. A positional draw, White being unable to promote the pawn by force.

  Student: Are there any other types of trades that might pose problems when trying to win with a material advantage?

  Teacher: Of course. Other foolish trades might allow the defender to set up an impregnable fortress in which passive defense holds, such as the positional draw in diagrams 285 and 286. You wouldn’t want to fall into such a frustrating situation, where no real progress can be made, even though you have superior forces. Nevertheless, the maxim “When ahead, trade pieces, not pawns” generally holds. Just remember, if you do swap pieces, make sure they’re the right ones.

  Student: What are the most serious dangers to a player who has gained a material advantage?

  Teacher: Besides what we’ve just discussed, the chief dangers tend to be psychological and positional, and like Tweedledum and Tweedledee, they go together. It’s natural for a player to relax or get complacent after gaining material, thinking the game’s already won. But when the opponent resists, the win can easily slip away. Extra material doesn’t guarantee a win. You still have to make it work for you.

  Student: In what way might it not work for me?

  Teacher: One problem in winning material is that your forces can become separated from the main theater and unable to fight off enemy invaders. Be especially careful not to stretch your army to win a questionable pawn if it leaves certain key pieces, like the queen, out of position for defense. Think of what happened to Napoleon in Russia. Then get back to chess.

  Student: Are there any things I could do to minimize the possibility of failures?

  Teacher: You could do several things. Try to avoid a psychological letdown and stay alert. Cope with disarray in your forces by: (1) consolidating; (2) warding off potential threats; (3) activating key forces; (4) simplifying ruthlessly; and (5) maintaining your focus. Trade enough pieces, within reason, and your opponent will have nothing left to do. But you still shouldn’t relax—not until you get the win. And remember, once you’re ahead, be careful about trading too many pawns. With a material advantage, it’s easier to win more material. Concentrate on using any advantage. Play down your disadvantages. Always play to win. Always. Okay, that’s my Vince Lombardi pep talk for now.

  Student: I’m not sure if we’re discussing the endgame or football, so maybe we should just get back to our game. How about if Black avoids all we’ve just looked at and defends his d-pawn instead with 10 … c6 (diagram 287)?

  Diagram 287. After the possible defense 10 … c6.

  Teacher: This is solid defense, ending all immediate threats against the d-pawn. Its only drawbacks are that the move doesn’t develop a new piece, and in some cases it will lose a tempo if Black should later move his pawn to c5 where, along with the d-pawn, it would control a block of squares along White’s fourth rank.

  Student: Should Black think about defending the d-pawn in some other way? What about protecting it with 10 … Be6 (diagram 288)?

  Teacher: The bishop move develops a new piece and also adequately secures the d-pawn. Sometimes, though, the bishop is a better defensive piece at g6, where it cuts the White light-square bishop’s d3-h7 diagonal. To get to g6, Black must find the time and safety to play Bg4 and then Bh5 and then Bg6. But we’ve seen that 10 … Bg4 (diagram 258) loses a piece because of White’s pin on Black’s knight at f6. To retain this possible maneuver of shifting the bishop to g6, Black now plays 10 … Be7 (diagram 289), breaking the pin.

  Diagram 288. Another possible d-pawn defense, 10 … Be6.

  Diagram 289. Black retreats the bishop and breaks the pin, 10 … Be7.

  Student: Couldn’t White now play 11. Qf3 (diagram 290)?

  Diagram 290. After the possible continuation 11. Qf3.

  Teacher: This development of the queen to f3 would clear the center files for White’s rooks. The queen-rook might then be moved to d1 and the king-rook to e1. But Black should be able to exploit White’s queenly development by the simple 11 … Bg4 (diagram 291), and the queen would have to waste a move to get to safety.

  Student: Could White try something other than 11. Qf3?

  Diagram 291. Note it’s okay to attack White’s queen, 11 … Bg4.

  Teacher: Sure. One legitimate possibility is 11. Re1, seizing the open file. But that’s not what White winds up doing. Instead he plays 11. Bxf6 (diagram 292).

  Diagram 292. After the actual 11 Bxf6.

  Student: Should Black then take back with the king-knight pawn, 11 … gxf6?

  Teacher: No, that wouldn’t make too much sense, for the kingside then becomes disrupted and broken, as we’ve discussed in a related variation (diagram 270). It would be much better to take back with the bishop, 11 … Bxf6 (diagram 293).

  Diagram 293. After taking back, 11 … Bxf6.

  Student: Things are starting to get interesting. I wonder where we’re going to go from here.

  Teacher: We’ve been talking about strategy and tactics, their importance to the middlegame, and how they continue to apply to the oncoming transitional stage. Naturally, we’ve also had to lay the groundwork for the next phase itself, namely, the endgame.

  Student: Are we there yet?

  Teacher: Count up the chessic mileage and decide for yourself during our next lesson. Got the picture? />
  Student: In black and white.

  LESSON 14

  ENDGAME PRINCIPLES, CENTRALIZATION, THE ACTIVE KING, AND PAWN PROMOTION

  Student: I’ve checked out the position and I think an endgame is in sight. Do chessplayers need to adjust their thinking during the last stages of a game?

  Teacher: Endgames are a little different from openings and middlegames. Time is still critical, except that in this last phase material is no longer its enemy. The two begin to merge into a concluding strategy, which may yet require a tactical turn. The same ideas are always there. We’re just not used to looking for them in different settings.

  Student: How is the endgame different from the earlier stages?

  Teacher: The endgame features simplification to exploit tangible and positional superiority. The inferior side meanwhile tries to complicate the issue, keeping the position alive to stave off ignominious defeat. Endgames are distinguishable from openings and middlegames in at least several of the following ways: (1) fewer pieces are on the board (often the queens have been exchanged); (2) the kings are more active; (3) calculations can be more precise; (4) the relative values of the units change (pawns become more important and minor pieces less important); (5) material advantages are emphasized; and (6) it’s often desirable not to move because of zugzwang or the opposition.

  Student: Hold on. Zugzwang? What’s that?

  Teacher: Zugzwang is a German word meaning something like “compulsion to move.” In the endgame you can find yourself in zugzwang when any move you make worsens your position. The rules of chess dictate that you have no choice but to move when it’s your turn. Given that fact, a clever opponent may actually be able to create circumstances that make all your choices bad ones—and you have no choice but to make one, either.

  Student: That’s a scary thought. Here’s another one: I don’t actually know when an endgame begins. Is there a way to tell?

  Teacher: You can usually call it an endgame after the queens are traded and it’s safe enough for the kings to become active. But the opening shouldn’t necessarily be separated from the endgame. In many ways, the final phase is actually the logical outcome of everything that comes earlier, beginning with the opening. Formations created in the first few moves of a contest can last right down to the end of a game, many moves later. This is especially true with regard to pawn structure, inasmuch as every pawn move leaves an indelible mark on the overall position. Thus, the consequences of structural problems in the opening tend to be real and lasting.

  Student: But aren’t certain factors important throughout an entire game, not just in particular phases?

  Teacher: Absolutely. Time, for example, is important from beginning to end. In the opening, an advantage in time means that one can control the flow of play. In the middlegame, time can be used to implement your own plans before the opponent gets to play his. In the endgame, having an extra move or two can translate, among other things, to queening first, moving your king in time to catch a dangerous pawn, or getting more dominant piece positions and placements. You may also use extra time to seize control of a line or square, or take out time to make luft.

  Student: Sounds like another German word. What does it mean?

  Teacher: You’re right, luft is another German term. It means “breathing space.” In chess it specifically refers to the act of creating an escape hatch for the castled king. Which reminds me that I should warn you. Just because you’re ahead in some way doesn’t mean you can afford to coast along. Your opponent isn’t going to let you. Most will snarl on like cornered chess rats. So you shouldn’t quit planning, analyzing, and fighting unless you want to quit the game. As far as what you’re fighting for, some factors can apply over the course of a game, when and if the situation dictates. As we’ve seen, time is almost always significant. The same is largely true for the center: We generally need to try to keep it foremost in our thoughts.

  Student: Why might it still be important to play for the center in the endgame?

  Teacher: The principle of centralization is vital throughout a game, just like the element of time. True, in the opening you should try to develop to the middle and guard the central squares. But even in the endgame, centralizing the king can be paramount. Once established in the center, the king is more ready to attack and defend key squares while monitoring activities across the board.

  Student: So you’re implying that pieces in general should head for the center in the endgame too, as in the opening?

  Teacher: Most pieces, though not necessarily rooks, should be centralized in the ending, simply because from the center they radiate in all directions and are better prepared to do business anywhere. Queen endings, for instance, can be dominated by a centralized queen, whose power from the center is so great it can thwart its enemy counterpart, denying it access to good squares and a good time. Frustrating your opponent can be excellent strategy. It could result in your opponent resorting to unsound and risky play, and in an ending with queens a careless mistake is often fatal.

  Student: Could you say a little more about queen placement in the endgame?

  Teacher: In the endgame, where your queen faces off against its rival, you’ll want to centralize your own queen as a dominant principle. In the center, your queen impairs the opposing queens function, whether in attack or defense, by guarding many of the squares the enemy queen would like to use.

  Student: But in the opening, it would be virtually impossible to keep your queen stationed in the center.

  Teacher: That’s true. In the earlier phases, it’s too tricky to maintain your queen in the center. You may be able to get it there, but keeping it there could be a problem. Generally, the enemy is able to attack a centralized queen with minor pieces or pawns, forcing a withdrawal. To save the queen, you’ll wind up losing time, space, and maybe even the queen. In the endgame, however, the opponent often doesn’t have the firepower or ability to drive away a centrally based queen as easily.

  Student: All right, let’s get back to our game. What’s the position?

  Teacher: Black has just taken back on f6 with his bishop (diagram 293).

  Student: I think one thing we’ve been looking at is something like 12. Qh5. Is that what we should play?

  Teacher: No, let’s try a different tack and simply capture the d-pawn outright, 12. Nxd5!.

  Diagram 294. After the actual 12. Nxd5!.

  Student: I think I get the point. As we’ve already more or less considered, if Blacks queen takes back, 12 … Qxd5 (diagram 295), White wins the queen with 13. Bxh7+, discovering an attack from White’s queen to Black’s.

  Diagram 295. White now has a discovery on Black’s queen. 13. Bxh7+.

  Teacher: Very good. Black will have to accept the idea that he’s dropped a pawn and play on from there. He can at this point, for example, complete his development with 12 … Be6 (diagram 296).

  Diagram 296. If Black were to go on with 12 … Be6.

  Student: Then what?

  Teacher: White would simplify further, 13. Nxf6" Qxf6 (diagram 297). Blacks chances of achieving a draw in the pawn-down endgame would not be very good.

  Diagram 297. After the further simplification 13. Nxf6+ Qxf6.

  Student: I guess it depends on the pawn’s value in the ensuing endgame. But how is it that an extra pawn usually wins, and how is the win typically executed?

  Teacher: Having an extra pawn doesn’t necessarily mean very much in the opening, when time, development, and the initiative supersede. An extra pawn stars in the endgame, when it has a real chance to forge ahead and become a new queen. Not surprisingly, endgame theory often relies on converting an extra pawn into a win. Once a pawn becomes a new queen, checkmate can’t be too far away. According to theory, an advancing pawn may force the losing side to sacrifice material to stop it, most likely a knight or a bishop. With the extra piece it has won for its pawn, the superior side will probably be able to win additional enemy pawns as well, which will likely threaten to queen. Sooner
or later, the superior side will either force mate or increase its material advantage so greatly that mate becomes imminent.

  Student: Just to be overly sure—when I’m ahead I should trade pieces, right?

  Teacher: That’s right, and you’ve heard me say that, I’m sure, for the umpteenth time. The way to a winning technique is fairly direct. The stronger side should systematically try to exchange pieces, minor piece for minor piece, rook for rook, and queen for queen. As we’ve already pointed out, however, he must be chary about trading pawns. If he swaps too many, the inferior side may see an opportunity to give up a minor piece for the final pawn. With no pawns left, its impossible to make a new queen—or even an old one. Meanwhile, the extra minor piece itself, without the presence of pawns, may not lead to a forced win. Pawns can become a lot more important that you’d imagine, and mostly during an endgame.

  Student: So the main reason to trade pieces is to emphasize the difference in the ratio of forces?

  Teacher: Yes, but there’s something else. A further benefit of systematic exchanges is that they virtually reduce all counter-play. One generally needs material to create attacking chances, and the less you have, the harder it becomes to get back in the game. So not only should we trade when ahead, we should also trade to avoid complications, for they may lead us to losing our way. If we lose our way, we’ll possibly lose control, and that’s when we can kiss the game good-bye.

  Student: Since it’s good to trade when ahead, obviously it’s bad to trade when behind. I love corollaries, but they don’t always love me.

  Teacher: Yes, you should try to avoid trades when behind, but you always have to base your decision on what’s really happening on the board, not on abstractions and generalities.