Looking Backward: 2000-1887

by Edward Bellamy

  CHAPTER XII.

  The questions which I needed to ask before I could acquire even anoutline acquaintance with the institutions of the twentieth centurybeing endless, and Dr. Leete's good-nature appearing equally so, wesat up talking for several hours after the ladies left us. Remindingmy host of the point at which our talk had broken off that morning, Iexpressed my curiosity to learn how the organization of the industrialarmy was made to afford a sufficient stimulus to diligence in the lackof any anxiety on the worker's part as to his livelihood.

  "You must understand in the first place," replied the doctor, "thatthe supply of incentives to effort is but one of the objects sought inthe organization we have adopted for the army. The other, and equallyimportant, is to secure for the file-leaders and captains of theforce, and the great officers of the nation, men of proven abilities,who are pledged by their own careers to hold their followers up totheir highest standard of performance and permit no lagging. With aview to these two ends the industrial army is organized. First comesthe unclassified grade of common laborers, men of all work, to whichall recruits during their first three years belong. This grade is asort of school, and a very strict one, in which the young men aretaught habits of obedience, subordination, and devotion to duty. Whilethe miscellaneous nature of the work done by this force prevents thesystematic grading of the workers which is afterwards possible, yetindividual records are kept, and excellence receives distinctioncorresponding with the penalties that negligence incurs. It is not,however, policy with us to permit youthful recklessness orindiscretion, when not deeply culpable, to handicap the future careersof young men, and all who have passed through the unclassified gradewithout serious disgrace have an equal opportunity to choose the lifeemployment they have most liking for. Having selected this, they enterupon it as apprentices. The length of the apprenticeship naturallydiffers in different occupations. At the end of it the apprenticebecomes a full workman, and a member of his trade or guild. Now notonly are the individual records of the apprentices for ability andindustry strictly kept, and excellence distinguished by suitabledistinctions, but upon the average of his record during apprenticeshipthe standing given the apprentice among the full workmen depends.

  "While the internal organizations of different industries, mechanicaland agricultural, differ according to their peculiar conditions, theyagree in a general division of their workers into first, second, andthird grades, according to ability, and these grades are in many casessubdivided into first and second classes. According to his standing asan apprentice a young man is assigned his place as a first, second, orthird grade worker. Of course only young men of unusual ability passdirectly from apprenticeship into the first grade of the workers. Themost fall into the lower grades, working up as they grow moreexperienced, at the periodical regradings. These regradings take placein each industry at intervals corresponding with the length of theapprenticeship to that industry, so that merit never need wait long torise, nor can any rest on past achievements unless they would dropinto a lower rank. One of the notable advantages of a high grading isthe privilege it gives the worker in electing which of the variousbranches or processes of his industry he will follow as his specialty.Of course it is not intended that any of these processes shall bedisproportionately arduous, but there is often much difference betweenthem, and the privilege of election is accordingly highly prized. Sofar as possible, indeed, the preferences even of the poorest workmenare considered in assigning them their line of work, because not onlytheir happiness but their usefulness is thus enhanced. While, however,the wish of the lower grade man is consulted so far as the exigenciesof the service permit, he is considered only after the upper grade menhave been provided for, and often he has to put up with second orthird choice, or even with an arbitrary assignment when help isneeded. This privilege of election attends every regrading, and when aman loses his grade he also risks having to exchange the sort of workhe likes for some other less to his taste. The results of eachregrading, giving the standing of every man in his industry, aregazetted in the public prints, and those who have won promotion sincethe last regrading receive the nation's thanks and are publiclyinvested with the badge of their new rank."

  "What may this badge be?" I asked.

  "Every industry has its emblematic device," replied Dr. Leete, "andthis, in the shape of a metallic badge so small that you might not seeit unless you knew where to look, is all the insignia which the men ofthe army wear, except where public convenience demands a distinctiveuniform. This badge is the same in form for all grades of industry,but while the badge of the third grade is iron, that of the secondgrade is silver, and that of the first is gilt.

  "Apart from the grand incentive to endeavor afforded by the fact thatthe high places in the nation are open only to the highest class men,and that rank in the army constitutes the only mode of socialdistinction for the vast majority who are not aspirants in art,literature, and the professions, various incitements of a minor, butperhaps equally effective, sort are provided in the form of specialprivileges and immunities in the way of discipline, which the superiorclass men enjoy. These, while intended to be as little as possibleinvidious to the less successful, have the effect of keepingconstantly before every man's mind the great desirability of attainingthe grade next above his own.

  "It is obviously important that not only the good but also theindifferent and poor workmen should be able to cherish the ambition ofrising. Indeed, the number of the latter being so much greater, it iseven more essential that the ranking system should not operate todiscourage them than that it should stimulate the others. It is tothis end that the grades are divided into classes. The grades as wellas the classes being made numerically equal at each regrading, thereis not at any time, counting out the officers and the unclassified andapprentice grades, over one-ninth of the industrial army in the lowestclass, and most of this number are recent apprentices, all of whomexpect to rise. Those who remain during the entire term of service inthe lowest class are but a trifling fraction of the industrial army,and likely to be as deficient in sensibility to their position as inability to better it.

  "It is not even necessary that a worker should win promotion to ahigher grade to have at least a taste of glory. While promotionrequires a general excellence of record as a worker, honorablemention and various sorts of prizes are awarded for excellence lessthan sufficient for promotion, and also for special feats and singleperformances in the various industries. There are many minordistinctions of standing, not only within the grades but within theclasses, each of which acts as a spur to the efforts of a group. It isintended that no form of merit shall wholly fail of recognition.

  "As for actual neglect of work, positively bad work, or other overtremissness on the part of men incapable of generous motives, thediscipline of the industrial army is far too strict to allow anythingwhatever of the sort. A man able to do duty, and persistentlyrefusing, is sentenced to solitary imprisonment on bread and watertill he consents.

  "The lowest grade of the officers of the industrial army, that ofassistant foremen or lieutenants, is appointed out of men who haveheld their place for two years in the first class of the first grade.Where this leaves too large a range of choice, only the first group ofthis class are eligible. No one thus comes to the point of commandingmen until he is about thirty years old. After a man becomes anofficer, his rating of course no longer depends on the efficiency ofhis own work, but on that of his men. The foremen are appointed fromamong the assistant foremen, by the same exercise of discretionlimited to a small eligible class. In the appointments to the stillhigher grades another principle is introduced, which it would taketoo much time to explain now.

  "Of course such a system of grading as I have described would havebeen impracticable applied to the small industrial concerns of yourday, in some of which there were hardly enough employees to have leftone apiece for the classes. You must remember that, under the nationalorganization of labor, all industries are carried on by great bodiesof men, many of yo
ur farms or shops being combined as one. It is alsoowing solely to the vast scale on which each industry is organized,with coordinate establishments in every part of the country, that weare able by exchanges and transfers to fit every man so nearly withthe sort of work he can do best.

  "And now, Mr. West, I will leave it to you, on the bare outline of itsfeatures which I have given, if those who need special incentives todo their best are likely to lack them under our system. Does it notseem to you that men who found themselves obliged, whether they wishedor not, to work, would under such a system be strongly impelled to dotheir best?"

  I replied that it seemed to me the incentives offered were, if anyobjection were to be made, too strong; that the pace set for the youngmen was too hot; and such, indeed, I would add with deference, stillremains my opinion, now that by longer residence among you I havebecome better acquainted with the whole subject.

  Dr. Leete, however, desired me to reflect, and I am ready to say thatit is perhaps a sufficient reply to my objection, that the worker'slivelihood is in no way dependent on his ranking, and anxiety for thatnever embitters his disappointments; that the working hours are short,the vacations regular, and that all emulation ceases at forty-five,with the attainment of middle life.

  "There are two or three other points I ought to refer to," he added,"to prevent your getting mistaken impressions. In the first place, youmust understand that this system of preferment given the moreefficient workers over the less so, in no way contravenes thefundamental idea of our social system, that all who do their best areequally deserving, whether that best be great or small. I have shownthat the system is arranged to encourage the weaker as well as thestronger with the hope of rising, while the fact that the stronger areselected for the leaders is in no way a reflection upon the weaker,but in the interest of the common weal.

  "Do not imagine, either, because emulation is given free play as anincentive under our system, that we deem it a motive likely to appealto the nobler sort of men, or worthy of them. Such as these find theirmotives within, not without, and measure their duty by their ownendowments, not by those of others. So long as their achievement isproportioned to their powers, they would consider it preposterous toexpect praise or blame because it chanced to be great or small. Tosuch natures emulation appears philosophically absurd, and despicablein a moral aspect by its substitution of envy for admiration, andexultation for regret, in one's attitude toward the successes and thefailures of others.

  "But all men, even in the last year of the twentieth century, are notof this high order, and the incentives to endeavor requisite for thosewho are not must be of a sort adapted to their inferior natures. Forthese, then, emulation of the keenest edge is provided as a constantspur. Those who need this motive will feel it. Those who are above itsinfluence do not need it.

  "I should not fail to mention," resumed the doctor, "that for thosetoo deficient in mental or bodily strength to be fairly graded withthe main body of workers, we have a separate grade, unconnected withthe others,--a sort of invalid corps, the members of which areprovided with a light class of tasks fitted to their strength. All oursick in mind and body, all our deaf and dumb, and lame and blind andcrippled, and even our insane, belong to this invalid corps, and bearits insignia. The strongest often do nearly a man's work, thefeeblest, of course, nothing; but none who can do anything are willingquite to give up. In their lucid intervals, even our insane are eagerto do what they can."

  "That is a pretty idea of the invalid corps," I said. "Even abarbarian from the nineteenth century can appreciate that. It is avery graceful way of disguising charity, and must be grateful to thefeelings of its recipients."

  "Charity!" repeated Dr. Leete. "Did you suppose that we consider theincapable class we are talking of objects of charity?"

  "Why, naturally," I said, "inasmuch as they are incapable ofself-support."

  But here the doctor took me up quickly.

  "Who is capable of self-support?" he demanded. "There is no such thingin a civilized society as self-support. In a state of society sobarbarous as not even to know family cooperation, each individual maypossibly support himself, though even then for a part of his lifeonly; but from the moment that men begin to live together, andconstitute even the rudest sort of society, self-support becomesimpossible. As men grow more civilized, and the subdivision ofoccupations and services is carried out, a complex mutual dependencebecomes the universal rule. Every man, however solitary may seem hisoccupation, is a member of a vast industrial partnership, as large asthe nation, as large as humanity. The necessity of mutual dependenceshould imply the duty and guarantee of mutual support; and that it didnot in your day constituted the essential cruelty and unreason of yoursystem."

  "That may all be so," I replied, "but it does not touch the case ofthose who are unable to contribute anything to the product ofindustry."

  "Surely I told you this morning, at least I thought I did," repliedDr. Leete, "that the right of a man to maintenance at the nation'stable depends on the fact that he is a man, and not on the amount ofhealth and strength he may have, so long as he does his best."

  "You said so," I answered, "but I supposed the rule applied only tothe workers of different ability. Does it also hold of those who cando nothing at all?"

  "Are they not also men?"

  "I am to understand, then, that the lame, the blind, the sick, and theimpotent, are as well off as the most efficient, and have the sameincome?"

  "Certainly," was the reply.

  "The idea of charity on such a scale," I answered, "would have madeour most enthusiastic philanthropists gasp."

  "If you had a sick brother at home," replied Dr. Leete, "unable towork, would you feed him on less dainty food, and lodge and clothe himmore poorly, than yourself? More likely far, you would give him thepreference; nor would you think of calling it charity. Would not theword, in that connection, fill you with indignation?"

  "Of course," I replied; "but the cases are not parallel. There is asense, no doubt, in which all men are brothers; but this general sortof brotherhood is not to be compared, except for rhetorical purposes,to the brotherhood of blood, either as to its sentiment or itsobligations."

  "There speaks the nineteenth century!" exclaimed Dr. Leete. "Ah, Mr.West, there is no doubt as to the length of time that you slept. If Iwere to give you, in one sentence, a key to what may seem themysteries of our civilization as compared with that of your age, Ishould say that it is the fact that the solidarity of the race and thebrotherhood of man, which to you were but fine phrases, are, to ourthinking and feeling, ties as real and as vital as physicalfraternity.

  "But even setting that consideration aside, I do not see why it sosurprises you that those who cannot work are conceded the full rightto live on the produce of those who can. Even in your day, the duty ofmilitary service for the protection of the nation, to which ourindustrial service corresponds, while obligatory on those able todischarge it, did not operate to deprive of the privileges ofcitizenship those who were unable. They stayed at home, and wereprotected by those who fought, and nobody questioned their right tobe, or thought less of them. So, now, the requirement of industrialservice from those able to render it does not operate to deprive ofthe privileges of citizenship, which now implies the citizen'smaintenance, him who cannot work. The worker is not a citizen becausehe works, but works because he is a citizen. As you recognize the dutyof the strong to fight for the weak, we, now that fighting is gone by,recognize his duty to work for him.

  "A solution which leaves an unaccounted-for residuum is no solution atall; and our solution of the problem of human society would have beennone at all had it left the lame, the sick, and the blind outside withthe beasts, to fare as they might. Better far have left the strong andwell unprovided for than these burdened ones, toward whom every heartmust yearn, and for whom ease of mind and body should be provided, iffor no others. Therefore it is, as I told you this morning, that thetitle of every man, woman, and child to the means of existence restson
no basis less plain, broad, and simple than the fact that they arefellows of one race--members of one human family. The only coincurrent is the image of God, and that is good for all we have.

  "I think there is no feature of the civilization of your epoch sorepugnant to modern ideas as the neglect with which you treated yourdependent classes. Even if you had no pity, no feeling of brotherhood,how was it that you did not see that you were robbing the incapableclass of their plain right in leaving them unprovided for?"

  "I don't quite follow you there," I said. "I admit the claim of thisclass to our pity, but how could they who produced nothing claim ashare of the product as a right?"

  "How happened it," was Dr. Leete's reply, "that your workers were ableto produce more than so many savages would have done? Was it notwholly on account of the heritage of the past knowledge andachievements of the race, the machinery of society, thousands of yearsin contriving, found by you ready-made to your hand? How did you cometo be possessors of this knowledge and this machinery, which representnine parts to one contributed by yourself in the value of yourproduct? You inherited it, did you not? And were not these others,these unfortunate and crippled brothers whom you cast out, jointinheritors, co-heirs with you? What did you do with their share? Didyou not rob them when you put them off with crusts, who were entitledto sit with the heirs, and did you not add insult to robbery when youcalled the crusts charity?

  "Ah, Mr. West," Dr. Leete continued, as I did not respond, "what I donot understand is, setting aside all considerations either of justiceor brotherly feeling toward the crippled and defective, how theworkers of your day could have had any heart for their work, knowingthat their children, or grand-children, if unfortunate, would bedeprived of the comforts and even necessities of life. It is a mysteryhow men with children could favor a system under which they wererewarded beyond those less endowed with bodily strength or mentalpower. For, by the same discrimination by which the father profited,the son, for whom he would give his life, being perchance weaker thanothers, might be reduced to crusts and beggary. How men dared leavechildren behind them, I have never been able to understand."

  NOTE.--Although in his talk on the previous evening Dr. Leete had emphasized the pains taken to enable every man to ascertain and follow his natural bent in choosing an occupation, it was not till I learned that the worker's income is the same in all occupations that I realized how absolutely he may be counted on to do so, and thus, by selecting the harness which sets most lightly on himself, find that in which he can pull best. The failure of my age in any systematic or effective way to develop and utilize the natural aptitudes of men for the industries and intellectual avocations was one of the great wastes, as well as one of the most common causes of unhappiness in that time. The vast majority of my contemporaries, though nominally free to do so, never really chose their occupations at all, but were forced by circumstances into work for which they were relatively inefficient, because not naturally fitted for it. The rich, in this respect, had little advantage over the poor. The latter, indeed, being generally deprived of education, had no opportunity even to ascertain the natural aptitudes they might have, and on account of their poverty were unable to develop them by cultivation even when ascertained. The liberal and technical professions, except by favorable accident, were shut to them, to their own great loss and that of the nation. On the other hand, the well-to-do, although they could command education and opportunity, were scarcely less hampered by social prejudice, which forbade them to pursue manual avocations, even when adapted to them, and destined them, whether fit or unfit, to the professions, thus wasting many an excellent handicraftsman. Mercenary considerations, tempting men to pursue money-making occupations for which they were unfit, instead of less remunerative employments for which they were fit, were responsible for another vast perversion of talent. All these things now are changed. Equal education and opportunity must needs bring to light whatever aptitudes a man has, and neither social prejudices nor mercenary considerations hamper him in the choice of his life work.