To Arms
Page 180
177 J. Williams, Byng, 74–5.
178 Farrar-Hockley, Death of an army, 101.
179 Dunn, The war the infantry knew, 90.
180 David (ed.), Inside Asquith’s cabinet, 199.
181 Groener, Lebenserinnerungen, 527.
182 Unruh, Langemarck, 123–7.
183 Terraine, General Jack’s diary, 70.
184 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, vi.372, 398–404.
1 Robert Musil, The man without qualities,!. 15. The major English-language work is Rothenberg, Army of Francis Joseph ; see also Regele, Conrad ; Deak, Beyond nationalism ; Wandruszka and Urbanitsch (eds.), Die bewaffnete Macht.
2 Ludendorff, My war memories,!. 75; Balck, Development of tactics—World War, 29.
3 Deak, Beyond nationalism, 99,129; see also James Lucas, Fighting troops of the Austro-Hungarian army, 32. Most of this paragraph is derived from Stone, Past and Present, 33 (Apr. 1966), 95–111.
4 Taslauanu, With the Austrian army, 13,19, 21–2.
5 These are Stone’s figures; Regele, Conrad, 181, gives 10,000 fewer in the Landwehr.
6 Bridge, From Sadowa to Sarajevo, 367.
7 Regele, Conrad, 181.
8 J. Stone and Schmidl, The Boer War and military reforms, 203–4.
9 Deak, Beyond nationalism, 72–6,159–64.
10 Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 86,137–40.
11 Storz, Kriegsbild und Rüstung, 244; Stone and Schmidl, Boer war and military reforms, 287–9, 299, 61; Matuschka, Organisationsgeschichte des Heeres 1890–1918, 213–15; Regele, Conrad, 210–12.
12 Lackey, Rebirth of the Habsburg army, 114–17, 161–2; Stone and Schmidl, Boer war and military reforms, 305–7.
13 Pitreich, 1914, ch. 1.
14 Tunstall, Planning for war, 16–48; this is the fullest English-language account of Austro-Hungarian planning.
15 Showalter, East European Quarterly, XV (1981), 163–80; Groener, Lebenserinnerungen, 101–2.
16 On the 1909 exchanges, see N. Stone ‘Moltke and Conrad: relations between the Austro-Hungarian and German general staffs 1909–1914’, in Kennedy (ed.), War plans ; Ritter, Sword and the Sceptre, ii. 240–6.
17 Foerster, Schlieffen, 40; Kuhl, Grand état-major, 113–14.
18 Contamine, Révanche, 81.
19 Wallach, Dogma, 116, n. 28.
20 Tunstall, Planning for war, 138.
21 Tunstall, Planning for war, 93.
22 Elze, Tannenberg, 79.
23 N. Stone, ‘Austria-Hungary’, in E. R. May (ed.), Knowing one’s enemies ; Pitreich, 1914, 115–36; Tunstall, Planning for war, 96–116; Maurer, Outbreak of the First World War, 27.
24 Regele, Conrad, 215–17, 246, 318; Tunstall, Planning for war, 60, 95,165–7.
25 Glaise von Horstenau, Ein General im Zwielicht, 343.
26 Tunstall, Planning for war, 184–7.
27 Quoted by Herwig, Journal of Strategic Studies, IX (1984), 56–7; on relations between the two, see Kronenbitter, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 57 (1998), 519–50.
28 Regele, Conrad, 302–4.
29 Glaise von Horstenau, Ein General im Zwielicht, 281–2; more generally, Jerabek, Potiorek, 102–3.
30 Tunstall, Planning for war, 221; also 141, 148–57,172–3; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 370, 378; Bussy (ed.), Tisza: Letters, 10; Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the origins, 206–8.
31 Tunstall, Planning for war, 157; Maurer, Outbreak of the First World War, 25, 80–3; Tisza, Letters, 12.
32 N. Stone, in May, Knowing one’s enemies, 54–60; N. Stone, Eastern front, 70–80; Tunstall, Planning for war, 179–83, 198–9, 208; Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 118. On the efforts by Austrian historians to cover up for Conrad, see Tunstall, Austrian History Yearbook, XXVII (1996), 181–98.
33 Hoffmann, War of lost opportunities, ii. 13–14; Regele, Conrad, 218–22.
34 von Matuschka, ‘Organisationsgeschichte des Heeres’, 216.
35 Herwig, ‘Imperial Germany’, in E. R. May (ed.), Knowing one’s enemies, 69; but see Hoffmann, War of lost opportunities, ii. 13–14, 18–19.
36 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 148,197–8, 305.
37 Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 80,149–50.
38 Gatrell, Government, industry and rearmament, 299.
39 Ibid. 132–4; Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 231–4; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 322; Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 327–9, 339, 341.
40 Kenez, California Slavic Studies, VII (1973), 129.
41 David Jones, ‘Imperial Russia’s forces at war, in Millett and Murray (eds.), Military effectiveness,!. 281–2.
42 Fuller, Civil-military conflict in Imperial Russia, 130–68; also 52–3, 220.
43 Fuller, Civil-military conflict in Imperial Russia, 202–3, 219–36; David Jones (ed.), Military-naval encyclopaedia, ii. 128–42; Stone, Eastern front, 19–24; Perrins, Slavonic and East European Review, LVIII (1980), 370–98; Lieven, Nicholas II, 169, 174–6; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 77, 150; Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 268, 278–9, 283–94; Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 218–21.
44 Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 101–3, 205, 236, 250–1; John W. Steinberg, ‘Russian general staff training and the approach of war’, in Coetzee and Shevin-Coetzee (eds.), Authority, identity, 278–80, 289.
45 Fuller, Civil-military conflict, 201–2; Wildman, End of the Russian imperial army, 69; Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 215–16.
46 Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 132–4, 208–10.
47 Showalter, Tannenberg, 82.
48 Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 171–91,198–9, 257–9.
49 Fuller, Strategy and power, 355–61; Fuller is both fundamental and revisionist on Russian war planning.
50 Ibid. 386–93.
51 Ibid. 385, 424–7; also Spring, Slavonic and East European Review, LXVI (1988), 577–8; Cimbala, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, IX (1996), 379.
52 Fuller, Strategy and power, 426–7; Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 222–7; Hermann, Arming of Europe, 131–4; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 153–4.
53 Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 330–1.
54 Danilov, Russie, 69–75; Gourko, War and revolution, 13–14; Stone, Eastern front, 30–3.
55 Frantz, Russland auf dem Wege, 32–40.
56 Fuller, Strategy and power, 433–6, 439–41; Spring, Slavonic and East European Review, LVI (1988), 580–1.
57 Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 241.
58 Snyder, Ideology of the offensive, chs. 6 and 7, has a full discussion of Russian war planning; see also Ironside, Tannenberg, 31–7; William Fuller, ‘The Russian empire’, in E. R. May (ed.), Knowing one’s enemies.
59 Lincoln, Passage through Armageddon, 25; Gourko, War and revolution, 4, reckons the transport distances were five times Germany’s.
60 Andolenko, Armée russe, 322.
61 Westwood, Railways at war, 125–8.
62 D. Jones, Sbornik, Xl (1985), 55–6; id. Military-naval encyclopaedia,!. 167–8, and ii. 143–9; Danilov, Russie, 148–53,166–77; Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 368–71.
63 Frantz, Russland auf dem Wege, 43–4; Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 294–7.
64 Florinsky, End of the Russian empire, 208.
65 Pares, Fall of the Russian monarchy, 193; Lincoln, Passage, 54.
66 Frantz, Russland auf dem Wege, 154, also 152.
67 Danilov, Russie, 249.
68 Ibid. 142–3; Gourko, War and revolution, 5–6; Brusilov, Soldier’s notebook, 13; Kenez, California Slavic Studies, VII (1973), 133–4,139
69 For the Eastern front throughout the war see Stone, Eastern front ; of the older literature Churchill, Unknown War, is a reasonable narrative. On Tannenberg specifically, the best and most recent account is Showalter, Tannenberg ; of the older literature, most helpful is Elze, Tannenberg ; Ironside, Tannenberg, is a clear if somewhat didactic analysis; Golovine, Russian campaign of 1914, sets ou
t to attack Sukhomlinov and Zhilinskii, while praising the Grand Duke and Rennenkampf. Of the German memoirs, Hoffmann, War of lost opportunities, is best; Goodspeed’s Ludendorff is superior to Ludendorff’s own version.
70 Knox, With the Russian army, i. 46.
71 Harrison, ‘Samsonov’, 17.
72 Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 252–5.
73 Lincoln, Passage, 63–4.
74 Elze, Tannenberg, 83; see also 83–5, 93–6.
75 Pitreich, 1914, 140–5.
76 Showalter, Tannenberg, 143; see also John C. G. Röhl, ‘Germany’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 44–5; Mombauer, ‘Moltke’, 175–6, 214. It is worth pointing out that the German wenn, rendered by Showalter as ‘when’, could also be translated as a conditional ‘if’.
77 Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 10, 212.
78 Showalter, Tannenberg, 21.
79 Showalter, Tannenberg, 155–8; on this phase of the battle, see also Showalter, War & Society, II (1984), 60–86.
80 Golovine, Russian campaign of 1914, 27–8,134–47.
81 Elze, Tannenberg, 106–9.
82 Hoffmann, War diaries, 18; see also Pogge von Strandmann, Rathenau, 202–3; Ludendorff, Memoirs,!. 47.
83 Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg, ii. 103–13; Bucholz, Moltke, Schlieffen, 104–6, 209, 248, 250–1; Showalter, Tannenberg, 33, 193–4.
84 Hoeppner, L’Allemagne et la guerre de l’air, 43; Showalter, Tannenberg, 207, 210.
85 Goodspeed, Ludendorff, 51.
86 Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg, ii. 113;Hoffmann, War of lost opportunities, 331.
87 Ironside, Tannenberg, 61–7,144–5; also Stone, Eastern front, 63; Goodspeed, Ludendorff, 69.
88 David Jones, Military-naval encyclopaedia, iv. 111–42, esp. 123,127.
89 Gourko, War and revolution, 24–5.
90 Golovine, Journal of the United Service Institution of India (Jan. 1933), 498–500.
91 Knox, With the Russian army, i. 65–6, 70–1.
92 Showalter, Tannenberg, 228–9.
93 Uhle-Wettler, Ludendorff, 126.
94 Harrison, ‘Samsonov’, 22.
95 Showalter, Tannenberg, 249, 258–67.
96 Showalter, Tannenberg, 286–97.
97 Hindenburg, Out of my life, 94; but see 87–8.
98 Pogge von Strandmann, Rathenau, 202.
99 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, ii. 36.
100 Görlitz, The Kaiser and his Court, 25.
101 Frantz, Russland auf dem Wege, 125, 129; for a defence of Rennenkampf, see Gourko, War and revolution, 10–11, 62.
102 Recent general accounts of the 1914 Serbian fighting are Jerabek, Potiorek ; Dimitrije Djordjevic, ‘Vojvoda Putnik, the Serbian high command, and strategy in 1914’, in Kiraly et al. (eds.), East Central European Society in World War I ; G. Rothenberg, Journal of Military History, LIII, (1989), 127–46; K. Peball, Österreichische militärische Zeitschrift, Sonderheft 1 (1965), 18–31; Schindler, War in History, VIII, (2001) (forthcoming); of the older literature, Pitreich, 1914, is most helpful.
103 Regele, Conrad, 266.
104 Wank, Austrian History Yearbook, I (1968), 82–3.
105 Regele, Conrad, 242–4.
106 Ibid. 305–6; also Pitreich, 1914, 73–83.
107 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 110–11.
108 Regele, Conrad, 302–4; also Rothenberg, ‘Habsburg army in the First World War’, in Kann et al. (eds.), Habsburg empire in World War I, 77;Österreichischer Bundesministerium für Heerwesen, (Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, L 146–7.
109 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 78,114.
110 Jerabek, Potiorek, 94–5, 99–105.
111 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 128.
112 Pitreich, 1914, 98; in general, 88–98; also Peball, Österreichische militärische Zeitschrift, Sonderheft 1 (1965), 22.
113 Gale Stokes, ‘Milan Obrenovic and the Serbian army’, in Kiraly et al. (ed.), East Central European Society, 555–67.
114 Ibid. 567; Mark Cornwall, ‘Serbia’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 58.
115 Djordjevic, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 569–70; also Renouvin, La Crise Européenne, 219–20; Larcher, La grande guerre dans les Balkans, 30;Österreichischer Bundesministerium, (Österreich Ungarns letzter Krieg,!. 97–101; Lyon, Journal of Military History, LXI (1997), 481–502.
116 Djordjevic ‘“Vojvoda” Radomir Putnik’, in Kiraly et al. (eds.), East Central European War Leaders, 234.
117 Lyon, Journal of Military History, LXI (1997), 488,494–5; Jerabek, Potiorek, 106; Cornwall, ‘Serbia’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 74; Williamson, Austria-Hungary, 102.
118 Jerabek, Potiorek, 119–31.
119 Jerabek, Potiorek, 150–61; Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 133–6.
120 Silberstein, Troubled alliance, 278.
121 Herwig, First World War, 89.
122 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 126–7; Stone, Eastern front, 78–82; Pitreich, 1914, 145–8;a general account in English of the Galician campaign, based on the Austrian official history, is in Army Quarterly, XXII (1931), 23–40, 261–80.
123 Tunstall, Planning for war, 228–34.
124 Regele, Conrad, 317–18, 444–9; Tunstall, Planning for war, 218.
125 Peball, Conrad, 105–8.
126 Schulte, Europäische Krise, 208.
127 Pitreich, 1914, 126–38,152–9.
128 Stone, Eastern front, 82–4; Golovine, Revue militaire française, 158 (1934), 220–50, and 159 (1934), 281–301.
129 Knox, With the Russian army, L 101; Churchill, Unknown war, 150.
130 Tunstall, Planning for war, 238–43.
131 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 161–3.
132 Herwig, First World War, 92.
133 Ibid. 94–5; Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 163,187–8.
134 Glaise von Horstenau, Ein General im Zwielicht, 343.
135 Taslauanu, With the Austrian army, 84,102–3.
136 Regele, Conrad, 357–9; Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 123–4,162.
137 Knox, With the Russian army, i. 139–40; Lobanov-Rostovsky, Grinding mill, 76, 79.
138 Silberstein, Troubled alliance, 255; Bussy, Tisza: letters, 47; Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 164–5.
139 Uhle-Wettler, Ludendorff, 153.
140 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, v. 405.
141 Ibid. 415; for the ad hoc development of the plan, see 402–16; also Österreichischer Bundesministerium, Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg,!. 341–7.
142 Janssen, Der Kanzler, 25;Hoffman, War of lost opportunities, ii. 48–9.
143 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, v. 11.
144 Österreichischer Bundesministerium, Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, L 349.
145 Inostrantzeff, Revue militaire française, 143 (mai 1933), 274–98; also Stone, Eastern front, 95–8, and Danilov, La Russie, 259–78.
146 Stone, Eastern front, 98–9, gives the version followed here, that Stavka urged speed and Ivanov delay. Danilov, La Russie, 278–84, has it the other way round.
147 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 167–8.
148 Kiszling, Österreich-Ungarns Anteil, 18; Brusilov, Soldier’s note-book, 83–93; Matthes, Die g Armee im Weichselfeldzuge.
149 Hoffman, War diaries,!. 46.
150 Janssen, Der Kanzler, 35–8; Kraft, Staatsräson und Kriegführung, 27–9.
151 Knox, With the Russian army, L 202–4.
152 Churchill, The unknown war, 247.
153 Hoffmann, War of lost opportunities, ii. 77.
154 Frantz, Russland auf dem Wege, 124.
155 Danilov, La Russie, 300–15; also Knox, With the Russian army, i. 204–15.
156 Gourko, War and revolution, 87–9.
157 Brusilov, Soldier’s note-book, 95–113.
158 Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, 167–71; Janssen, Der Kanzler, 34.
159 Jay Luvaas, ‘A unique army’, in Kann et al. (eds.), Habsbu
rg empire in World War I, 99; also Stone, Eastern front, 92–3,133–5; Pitreich, 1914, 228–9.