To Arms

by Hew Strachan

  414 Brown, Gold standard, 100,106; see also Spitzmüller, Memoirs, 115.

  415 Popovics, Geldwesen, 126–8,140–2;März, Austrian banking, 196, 232–3.

  416 Popovics, Geldwesen, 133–4.

  417 Ibid. 118–19,136–47; Walvé de Bordes, Austrian Crown, 108–9; Lutz, Fall of the German empire, ii. 208–9.

  418 Walvé de Bordes, Austrian Crown, 114–15, 145, 146; Gratz and Schüller, Wirtschaftliche Zusammenbruch, 182; Popovics, Geldwesen, 115–16, 147, 151–3, table IX.

  419 Feldman, Great disorder, 44.

  420 Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 48–9, 51, 271–2; Silberstein, Troubled alliance, 81–2, 93–4.

  421 Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 272–83; Emin, Turkey in the World War, 161–2; Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 54–5;Helfferich, Weltkrieg, 232; Williamson, Helfferich, 119; Gall et at, Deutsche Bank, 141.

  422 Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 263,319; Emin, Turkey in the World War, 144–7; Bihl, Kaukasus Politik, 204; Dschawid, Türkische Kriegsfinanzwirtschaft, 9, 24, 29.

  423 Emin, Turkey in the World War, 166; Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 202; Stuermer, Two war years, 131–2.

  424 Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 202; Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 282.

  425 Moukbil, Campagne de l’Irak, 184–6.

  426 Wallach, Anatomie, 262–3; Liman, Five years in Turkey, 236; Nogales, Four years, 284.

  427 Wallach, Anatomie, 213.

  428 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 96.

  429 Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 292–7.

  430 Wallach, Anatomie, 238.

  431 Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 283; Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 5.

  432 Gall et al., Deutsche Bank, 146.

  433 Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 321; Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 120–1;März, Austrian banking, 229–31.

  434 Wallach, Anatomie, 204–5; Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 122, 204; Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 317–48; Emin, Turkey in the World War, 134–5.

  435 Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 344–8; Emin, Turkey and the World War, 164–5; Larcher, La Guerre turque, 137–8.

  436 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 541. Macfie, End of the Ottoman empire, 150, and Ahmad, Kurdistan, 131, give slightly different but comparable figures. See also Dschawid, Türkische Kriegsfinanzwirtschaft, 12–14, 30.

  437 This is the calculation of Lampe, Bulgarian economy, 44; in general, see Danaïllow, Les Effets de la guerre en Bulgarie, 496, 530–45; Crampton, Bulgaria, 429–34.

  438 Crampton, Bulgaria, 487.

  439 Horn, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 180, (octobre 1995), 7–8, 27; Horn takes a harsher line than that adopted here.

  440 David (ed.), Inside Asquith’s cabinet, 209.

  441 Trebilcock, Industrialization of Continental Powers, 244–7, 278–81.

  442 Morgan, British financial policy, 317.

  443 Petit, Finances extérieures, 164–6; Knauss, Kriegsfinanzierung, 93.

  444 Claus, Kriegswirtschaft Russlands, 9.

  445 Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 288–90; Schmidt, Ribot, 124.

  446 Claus, Kriegswirtshaft Russlands, 11.

  447 Owen, Historical Journal, XIII (1970), 253–60; Parrini, Heir to empire, 59–60.

  448 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 44–5; Petit, Finances extérieures, 129,181–3; Horn, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, (octobre 1995), 9.

  449 Owen, Historical Journal, XIII (1970), 261–7; see also Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 412–17

  450 Harvey, Collision of empires, 289–90.

  451 Claus, Kriegswirtschaft Russlands, 26.

  452 Brown, Goldstandard, 49.

  453 Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 431–3.

  454 Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 407–24.

  455 Neilson, Strategy and supply, 54–7; Grigg, Lloyd George, 190–1.

  456 See above, 828–30.

  457 Neilson, Strategy and supply, 100–7; Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 305–9, 311; Neilson, Britain and the last Tsar, 353–4; Neilson, ‘Managing the war: Britain, Russia and ad hoc government’, in Dockrill and French (eds.), Strategy and intelligence, 108–9.

  458 Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 296–9; Petit, Finances extérieures, 61.

  459 Forsyth, Crisis of Liberal Italy, 152–4.

  460 Morgan, British financial policy, 317.

  461 Forsyth, Crisis of Liberal Italy, 12–13, 56–9, 150–1, 154, 321.

  462 Ibid. 163; Nouailhat, France et État-Unis, 278; Petit, Finances extérieures, 349, 357.

  463 Raymond Poidevin, ‘Les Relations économiques et financières’, and Pierre Milza, ‘Les Relations financières franco-italiennes pendant le premier conflict mondial’, in Guillen (ed.), La France et l’Italie ; also the comments by Leo Valiani on both essays, ibid. 348–9.

  464 Forsyth, Crisis of Liberal Italy, 162–3.

  465 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 96–100; Renouvin, Annales, VI (1951), 289–94.

  466 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 109.

  467 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 62, 267.

  468 Ibid. 20–2; Burk, ‘A merchant bank at war’, 158–9; id., ‘The Treasury: from impotence to power’, in Burk (ed.), War and the state, 89–90; Sayers, Bank of England,!. 86–8; Parrini, Heir to empire, 59–65.

  469 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 241–9; Nouailhat, Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, XIV (1967), 366; Schmidt, Ribot, 125–6.

  470 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 110–13; Petit, Finances extérieures, 71, 339–42.

  471 Knauss, Kriegsfinanzierung, 82; Eichengreen, Golden fetters, 83.

  472 Morgan, British financial policy, 327–31; Stamp, Taxation, 101; Brown, Gold standard, 60–1; Farr, ‘McKenna’, 185.

  473 Petit, Finances extérieures, 66–7,103–19.

  474 Jèze and Truchy, War finance, 289–90; Petit, Finances extérieures, 63.

  475 Horn, International History Review, XVII (1995), 62–3.

  476 Farr, ‘McKenna’, 158.

  477 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 62–4; Sayers, Bank of England, L 89; Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 225–7.

  478 Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 272–85; Renouvin, Annales, VI (1951), 294–6; Chandler, Strong, 86–92.

  479 Farr, ‘McKenna’, 164.

  480 Petit, Finances extérieures, 73–5, 200–1, 347–8; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 287–91; Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 67–76; Burk, Historical 7ournαl’XXII (1979)’ 353–4.

  481 See above, p. 830.

  482 Peter Dewey, ‘The new warfare and economic mobilization’, in Turner (ed.), Britain and the First World War, 82–3.

  483 Petit, Finances extérieures, 44–6, 49–50, 696.

  484 Horn, International History Review, XVII (1995), 68.

  485 Petit, Finances extérieures, 59, 77–9, 183–6, 196–7, 206–16;Jèze and Truchy, War expenditure of France, 299–301, 305–7.

  486 Horn, International History Review XVII (1995)’ 69, and for what follows 73–4; see also Horn, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 180 (octobre 1995), 21–6.

  487 Nouailhat, France et états-Unis, 363–7; Nouailhat, Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, XIV (1967), 356–74; Petit, Finances extérieures, 217–19, 378–83.

  488 Farr, ‘McKenna’, 245.

  489 Horn, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 180 (octobre 1995), 22.

  490 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 78–80.

  491 Schmidt, Ribot, 134–5; Petit, Finances extérieures, 225–32, 384–6.

  492 Neilson, Strategy and Supply, 202–3, 237–8; Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 307–9; Neilson, Britain and the last Tsar, 355–6; Neilson, ‘Managing the war: Britain, Russia and ad hoc government’, in Dockrill and French (eds.), Strategy and intelligence, 112.

  493 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of wa
r, 81–2; Petit, Finances extérieures, 236–9, 401.

  494 Johnson (ed.), Collected writings of Keynes, xvi. 207; see also 197–209.

  495 Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 367–8.

  496 Petit, Finances extérieures, 94–5, 400–10; Morgan, British financial policy, 325.

  497 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 83–90; Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 373–8; Renouvin, Annales, VI (1951), 297–303; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 373–8; J. M. Cooper, Pacific Historical Review, XLV (1976), 222–5; Petit, Finances extérieures, 411–22.

  498 Fiebig-von Hase and Sturm, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 52 (1993), 32; Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 89–93; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 416–18; Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 406–9.

  499 Morgan, British financial policy, 324–5; Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 388–90.

  500 Petit, Finances extérieures, 424–30; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, 381–2.

  501 Petit, Finances extérieures, 241–3.

  502 Forsyth, Crisis of Liberal Italy, 169–70; Neilson, Strategy and supply, 213–14.

  503 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 95.

  504 Cooper, Pacific Historical Review, XLV (1976), 228.

  505 Ferguson, Paper and iron, 134; also 108–9; see Gall et al., Deutsche Bank, 155–8; Feldman, Stinnes, 501.

  506 Helfferich, Weltkrieg, 355; on his Reichstag speech, see Hanssen, Diary, 164–5.

  507 Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 479–80, 510–17.

  508 Petit, Finances extérieures, 436–7, 440–1.

  509 Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 195–203.

  510 Ibid. 10, 65,138–43,163–6,167–8,175–7, 181,185; Petit, Finances extérieures, pp.– 439–40.

  511 Johnson (ed.), Collected writings of Keynes, XVI 287; for all above see Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 202–20.

  512 Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 467–76; see also Parrini, Heir to empire, 10, 259.

  513 Johnson (ed.), Collected writings of Keynes, xvi. 281–3; Skidelsky, Keynes, i. 344, 348.

  514 Petit, Finances extérieures, 100–1, 248–326.

  513 Petit, Finances extérieures, 446–56, 464, 472–98, 501–9, 515–29 ;Jèze and Truchy, War finance, 315–16; Kaspi, Le Temps des Americains, 51–7, 330–3.

  516 Teillard, Emprunts de guerre, 175–6.

  517 Petit, Finances extérieures, 623.

  518 Ibid. 629.

  519 Forsyth, Crisis of Liberal Italy, 173–4,186–7.

  520 Ibid. 175–8.

  521 Petit, Finances extérieures, 147–9.

  522 Forsyth, Crisis of Liberal Italy, 178–87.

  523 Petit, Finances extérieures, 638–41.

  524 Burk, Historical Journal, XXII (1979), 370–1.

  525 Petit, Finances extérieures, 89–92, 539–47, 601–4.

  526 Petit, Finances extérieures, 102, 123–5.

  527 Ibid. 548–97.

  528 Ibid. 607–17.

  529 Ibid. 510–14.

  530 Ibid. 124–5.

  531 Petit, Finances extérieures, 306–7, 645–54; Albert, South America, 65–6, 143–8; Forsyth, Crisis of Liberal Italy, 170–1.

  532 Petit, Finances extérieures, 92–3, 122–3; Morgan, British financial policy, 321; Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 317–18; Claus, Kriegswirtschaft Russlands, 13; Dua, Anglo-Japanese relations, 181–2.

  533 Morgan, British financial policy, 317; also Bogart, War costs, 129–30,184–5; Brown, Modern India, 188; A. J. Stockwell, ‘The war and the British empire’, in Turner (ed.), Britain and the First World War, 37.

  534 Lucas, Empire at war, v. 197–8.

  535 Scott, Australia during the war, 481–93.

  536 Andrews, Anzac illusion, 71–2; Lucas, Empire at war, iii. 241.

  537 Lucas, Empire at war, iii. 249–52.

  538 Ibid. ii. 59.

  539 Ibid. ii, 59; iii. 251–2; Scott, Australia during the war, 496, 500.

  540 Lucas, Empire at war, ii. 11–13, 14–16, 27–9, 39–41, 59–60; iii. 235–49; Scott, Australia during the war, 481, 495–6.

  541 Lucas, Empire at war, v. 198; Sanjay Bhattacharya, ‘Anxious albatross: British India and the armistice’, in Cecil and Liddle (eds.), At the eleventh hour, 189,196.

  542 Morgan, British financial policy, 317, 320.

  543 Lucas, Empire at war, ii. 29.

  544 Jèze and Truchy, War finance of France, 286.

  545 Morgan, British financial policy, 320–1.

  546 Balderston, Economic History Review, 2nd series, XLII (1989), 238; Soutou, ‘Comment a été financée la guerre’, in La Gorce (ed.), Première Guerre Mondiale, 284.

  547 Holtfrerich, German inflation, 75–7.

  548 Ferguson, Pity of war, 322.

  549 Roesler, Finanzpolitik, 151–8; see also Winkler, Einkommensverschiebungen, 14–15, 60, 69–70,81–2, for similar points in relation to Austria-Hungary.

  550 Hendrick, Page, ii. 270.

  551 Ibid. ii. 268.

  1 Hatry, Renault, 25.

  2 Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, vol. 1.4e vol., 393–5, and vol. XI, 65; also Gamelin, Marne, 310,315–16.

  3 Schoen, Geschichte de deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 614, 622, 642, 646,989; Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, vi. 12, 93; for the quantities in a train (Zug), see Schwarte, Weltkampf, vi. 92.

  4 Knox, With the Russian army, i. 174–5.

  5 Danilov, Russie, 327.

  6 Gourko, Memories, 100.

  7 Lobanov-Rostovsky, Grinding mill, 96.

  8 Dunn, The war the infantry knew, 116.

  9 Fewster, Bean, 113.

  10 Farrar-Hockley, Death of an army, 136,148; see also Holmes, Little field marshal, 248–53; Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 22, gives French’s limit on 29 October as 20 rounds per gun per day.

  11 Benary, Ehrenbuch der deutschen Feldartillerie, 56.

  12 Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, vol. 1,3e vol., 1314–15, and annex no. 2657; also vol. XI, 65.

  13 Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, vol. XI, 940–1. No figures on French stocks in August 1914 tally precisely. For different totals see ibid., vol. XI, 61;Joffre, Mémoires,!. 75–8; Contamine, Révanche, 107,130.

  14 Joffre, Mémoires, i.75–6.

  15 Max Schwarte, ‘Waffen und Munition—Erzeugung und Verbrauch’, in Jost and Folger (eds.), Was wir vom Weltkrieg nicht wissen, 337. Benary, Ehrenbuch der deutschen Feldartillerie, 35, 55, gives similar stocks per gun, but like other sources omits the distinction between guns in the field and guns in reserve (see e.g. Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg, ix. 383; Wrisberg, Wehr und Waffen, 53–4). Schoen, Geschichte des deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 581, gives 3,762 guns in the field on mobilization. The planned targets are given in Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg, ix. Anlage 3.

  16 Ludendorff, Urkunden der Obersten Heeresleitung, 2–16; Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg: Kriegsrüstung und Kriegswirtschaft,!. 379–403. Germany’s calculations concerning shell production were promised serious attention in vol. ii of the latter, but this work never appeared.

  17 Stone, Eastern front, 49; Danilov, Russie, 79–81.

  18 Siegelbaum, Politics of industrial mobilization, 27–8.

  19 Menning, Bayonets before bullets, 255.

  20 Danilov, Russie, 79–81; Suchomlinow, Erinnerungen, 270, 400.

  21 French, Journal of Strategic Studies,! (1979), 193–4; see also Clive Trebilcock, ‘War and the failure of industrial mobilisation: 1899 and 1914’, in Winter (ed.), War and economic development, 144–51.

  22 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1, 21; Bidwell and Graham, Fire-power, 96.

  23 Llewellyn Woodward, Great Britain and the war, 38.

  24 Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, xi. 61.

  25 Schoen, Geschichte des deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 581.

  26 Danilov, Russie, 79–81.

  27 Ministry of Munitions, vol. I, pt. 1,96; Reader, Imperial Chemical Industries,!. 191–3,300–1; see also Lambert
, Journal of Military History, LXII (1998), 33–7.