Escape From Rome
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Roman periphery, 89–109; benefit of Rome’s location, 89, 551–52n33; Carthage conflict with (third century BCE), 62, 77–78, 80, 91–100, 103, 104, 109, 546n57; characteristics of tribal peripheries, 551n26; compared to Qin China, 225; core and periphery as essential to rise of empire, 213, 225; core and periphery compared, 102–4, 548n1; critical preconditions for military success (mid-third- to mid-second-century BCE), 101, 103, 109, 222, 234; eastern periphery, 95–101, 538n14; failure to form single political-military network in eastern Mediterranean city-states, 91; Gallic conflicts (fourth century BCE to 225 BCE) and, 58, 77, 101, 116; Macedon, conflicts with, 92, 95–97, 99, 104; Mediterranean advantage of Rome, 104–9; Mediterranean divide, 89–92; Mediterranean political-military network (first millennium BCE), 91, 92; Middle Eastern political-military network (c. 1500–500 BCE), 90, 90; northern and western periphery, 101; routes of advance in, 106–8, 107; Sicily conflicts, 93–94; southern periphery, 93–94; stylized typology of peripheries, 102, 103; Syracuse conflicts, 91, 92, 93, 103; travel time and transportation cost in, 107, 107; troop deployment by region (200–168 BCE), 97–99, 98
Rome, sacked by Charles V (1527), 197
Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent, 358, 389, 492–93, 495, 496, 586n215, 597n60, 597n71, 598n85
Rouran clan, 246, 247, 284, 287, 288, 399
Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, 475
Rudolf I (Habsburg ruler), 166
Runciman, Walter, 553n7
Russia: Golden Horde incursion into, 188–89; infrastructure development of, 453; khaganate of Rus’, 291; Kievan Rus’, 175, 291; Mongol’s effect on economy of, 189, 558n29; Muscovy, 193, 292; Orthodox Church and, 511; population size of, 37; pre-Napoleonic Wars, 269; size of Russian empire, 32, 538n14, 571n72; Tatars in, 189, 292
Safavid Iran, 207–8, 301
Saka empire, 40, 298, 299–300
Salian dynasty, 165, 168–69, 170, 171, 173. See also German empire
Samanid dynasty, 145, 301
Samarra crisis, 145
Sanskrit language, 329
Sasanians, 38, 133, 135, 137, 139, 141, 215, 256, 295, 300
scaling-up: challenge of city-state environment for, 54; challenge to Rome from tribal periphery, 130; co-optation of Rome and, 59, 79; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 120; of Germanic tribes to threaten Roman territory, 551n25; incorporating manpower of conquered regions into Roman military and, 63–64, 543n16; Middle Ages, failure to scale-up during, 128; military scaling up as essential to empire building, 233, 246; of steppe peoples, 274, 278–79
Scandinavian polities, 156, 187, 197, 209, 228, 260, 268, 269, 294, 349, 430, 483, 484, 578n59. See also Vikings
Scheidel, Walter, 539n21
Schiavone, Aldo, 599n6
Schmalkaldic League, 197, 199
Schumpeterian growth, 79–80, 232, 341, 408, 507, 547n63
Scythians, 290, 299
(Second) Great Divergence, 13; causal conditions for, 337–44, 491, 497, 501; counterfactual derailing, 467; culture and, 472–73; defined, 530; European trade with New World and, 428; First Great Divergence paving way for, 231–32; First Industrial Revolution and, 425; fragmentation of power in Europe and, 343, 497; search for origins of, 19–26. See also Industrial Revolution(s)
Second Punic War, 78, 121, 546n59, 549n9, 551n29
sedentism, 32, 275, 277–79, 287, 295, 298, 305, 568n35
Seleucid empire, 95–101; annual military outlays of, 550n21; ascent of, 117, 521; Cilician pirates as offshoot from failure of, 552n34; Egypt and, 521, 601n36; internal strife and fragmentation in, 550n14; military mobilization in, 104, 550n21, 551n30, 553n18, 554n18; navy of, 554n18; population of, 541n3; Roman provisioning in war against, 552n35; troop numbers for, 551n30, 553n18
Seljuqs, 38, 278, 301, 317, 483
Septimius Severus (Roman emperor), 86
Shang dynasty, 282, 308, 323
Siam, 47, 303, 435
Sicily: in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113, 118, 553n6; French rule over (thirteenth century), 166; German campaigns against (960s), 165; Roman empire and, 91, 93–94, 103, 105, 549n3, 549n5; saved from Arab conquest (740), 136
Sima Guang, 251
Singhasari empire, 47
Sivin, Nathan, 482
slavery: British trade in, 424, 425, 426, 589n17; colonial trade and use of, 388, 423–24, 427, 466, 470; Genoa’s role in chattel slavery, 499; in Roman empire, 69, 74
Slavic languages, 311–12
Slavs, 135, 137, 139, 165, 175, 268, 294
Smithian growth, 409, 412, 504, 507, 586n207
Sng, Tuan-Hwee, 306, 573n102, 587n224
social science scholarship, 19–20, 21
social welfare, 539n26
sociology scholarship, 20
solar energy, 6
Song empire: centralization of power in, 249; civil service system in, 394; Confucianism in, 322, 394; duration and scope of, 229; ending fragmentation of tenth century, 227, 231, 253, 285; imperial state formation, 41, 44, 249; kinship networks, rise of, 410, 411; military’s effect on economy of, 398, 584n168; money inflation in, 507; Mongol advance on, 175, 182–83, 187, 230, 231, 398, 558n20; population in, 564–65n67, 566n13; positive effect on economic development, 4, 285, 343, 398–99, 400, 403, 409, 440, 443, 585n199; steppe effect in, 282
South Asia: conquests of, 417–18; cultural traits linked to state formation in, 330; defined, 33; ecology and, 276, 295–98; foreign conquest of, 415; fragmentation and fiscal structures in (fourth and fifth centuries), 257; fragmentation into regional states (from sixth to twelfth centuries), 297; geography of, 261, 266, 267, 270, 295, 333; imperial state formation in, 45, 45–47, 257; overseas exploration not of interest to, 446–47; patterns of empire, 10, 13, 39–42, 40; polycentrism not applicable to, 418–19; religious beliefs in, 329; size of, 34, 34; steppe effect and, 295–98, 572n89. See also India
Southeast Asia: cultural traits linked to state formation in, 330; ecology of, 303–4; fragmentation in, 303; geography of, 267; imperial state formation in, 46–48; language and writing in, 329; patterns of empire in, 10; religious beliefs in, 328; steppe effect and, 303–4. See also specific countries
Southern Song. See Song empire
Spain: aristocracy in, 241; bullion imported from New World, 194, 233, 421–22; counterfactual in which Spain prevails over England (sixteenth century), 203–4; domestic conflict in, 376; failed invasion of England (Spanish Armada defeat 1588), 202, 378; New World colonies of, 201–2, 421, 426, 431, 444, 445, 449; obstruction of intellectual innovation in, 484, 487; representative assemblies in, 350; taxes and military commitments in, 369–70; Unions of Aragon and Valencia, 350. See also Iberian peninsula
Sparta, 91
Sri Lanka, 275, 433, 434, 446, 457
Srivijaya empire, 47, 447, 543n7
Stasavage, David, 353
state: defined, 530–31; formal state, focus on, 43; survival of state structures, 539n23
state formation: Christian Church and, 317; city-state culture and, 327; comparison of East and South Asia and Middle East with Europe, 419; in counterfactual scenario of no Roman empire, 524–26, 525; defined, 531; development dynamics of types of, 338, 339, 498; ecology and, 47, 274, 276–80, 331, 332, 501; geography and, 269–70; homogenization and, 268; imperial state formation and split of Christians into Catholics and Protestants, 197–98; imperial state formation in macro-regions, 9–10, 12, 43–48, 45, 268; in post-Roman Europe, 12, 63; Roman, 11, 52–58; test for effects of threat direction and strength on, 306, 567n33; Tilly’s capital-intensive mode of, 63, 67. See also culture and cultural unity; empire; monopoly; polycentrism; scaling-up
state system: defined, 531; institutional development and, 391; productive dynamics of, 17, 344, 475; resilience of, 306, 501. See also institutions
status quo, 508–10
Staufers, 169–71, 173
Stein, Peter, 516
steppe effect, 245, 270–81, 271, 331; access to horses and, 181–82, 245–48, 252, 274–75, 278, 280�
�81, 284, 289, 296; China and, 283–84, 286–90, 399, 569n44, 570n62; conquests by steppe invaders, 274, 276–79, 563n30; defined, 531; Europe and, 290–94; India and, 295–98; Iran and, 298–301; Levant and North Africa and, 302, 333; on polity size, 306; proximity as factor in empire formation, 13, 271–72, 273–74, 275; Rome’s limited contact with steppe warriors, 571n80; shadow empires and, 277–78; size of steppe empires, 32; South Asia and, 295–98; Southeast Asia and, 303–4. See also Mongol empire
Strabo, 85, 601n39
Strayer, Joseph, 241, 514
Sui empire, 281, 284, 289, 319, 397
Sumerian empire, 543n7
Sunni-Shia rift and competition, 145, 207
Sweden. See Scandinavian polities
Syracuse, 91, 92, 93, 103, 109, 222, 549n3; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113, 114, 116; troop numbers for, 551n30
Syria: Council of Chalcedon (451) and, 133; Parthians annexing, 601n36; Sasanians annexing, 135
Syrian Wars (274 to 101 BCE), 96, 550n14
Tabellini, Guido, 585n199
Taiwan, 260, 402, 443, 445–46, 468
Tang empire, 229; An Lushan rebellion (750s), 286; commercial development in, 397; conflict during, 289, 411; Confucianism in, 322; decentralization during, 230, 252; duration of, 43; ecology and, 280, 281; Huang Chao uprising (late ninth century), 286; imperial state formation in, 44, 228, 251, 284–85; positive effect on Chinese development, 4; religious beliefs in, 319; steppe effect and, 444
Tatars in Russia, 189, 292
taxes: in Arab conquest regions, 143, 144, 146–47, 148, 255–56; in Carolingian empire, 159; in China, 225, 245, 252, 253, 257, 394–95, 397, 407–10, 417, 433; comparing post-Roman Europe to Chinese Period of Disunion, 254–58; in England (post-1500), 379; in Europe (post-1500), 368–70, 579n65; in Habsburg territories, 202; in Mongol-controlled Russia, 189; in Mughal empire, 417; in Muscovy, 292; in Netherlands, 369–70, 579n65; in Ottoman empire, 206, 417, 565n73; in post-Roman Europe, 234–39, 254, 257; religious exemptions and, 315–16, 319, 320; in Roman empire, 61, 64, 72, 80, 81, 225, 234, 235, 506; in Umayyad caliphate, 143, 146, 148, 255
Teutonic Order, 175, 292
textile industry and trade, 386, 415, 423–25, 491–93, 581n115, 588n10, 597n60. See also cotton industry and trade
Theodosius I (Roman emperor), 315
Thermopylae, 99, 550n10
Thirty Years’ War, 200, 269, 417
Thomas, Robert, 380, 569n46
Thracian languages, 311
Tilly, Charles, 63, 67, 232
Timurid empire, 296, 301, 563n30
Toltec empire, 46
Toynbee, Arnold, 116, 117, 553n12
trade. See specific countries and empires
Trajan (Roman emperor), 86
transformative developmental outcomes, 501, 587n219; causes and trends of, 8–11, 495–500; demography as factor in, 497–99; ecology and geography, effects of, 501–2; Western exceptionalism, avoidance of, 502. See also ecology; First Great Divergence; geographic constraints and differences; Great Escape; Second Great Divergence
Treaty of Meersen (870), 353
Tuoba clan, 242, 246–47, 284, 287, 563nn47–48
Turchin, Peter, 271, 275, 279, 280, 295, 569n46, 573n102
Tvedt, Terje, 499
Uighurs, 174, 285, 287
Umayyad caliphate, 139–44, 140; Arab forces of, 142–43; compared to Roman empire, 213; conflict with Central Asian Turks, 301; demise of, 144, 150, 155; imperial consolidation under, 38; inability to maintain a large-scale empire in Europe, 147–48, 153, 267; integrity of ruling class in, 214; interregional rivalries among armies of, 144; naval blockades of Constantinople by, 135; overseas exploration not of interest to, 432; population of, 219; revenue collection in, 233; taxation in, 143, 146, 148, 255; tribal structures as limitation of, 143
United States: American Civil War, 427; American Revolution and independence, 376, 589n20; Bourgeois Revaluation in, 490; cotton exports to Britain from, 425, 427; transformative economic development in, 2
universities, founding of, 475, 485
urban development: autonomy of cities, 345, 353–55, 577n28; in China, 394, 397–98, 442; in England, 371, 373–74, 581n99, 597n64; growth correlated with, 356–59; Protestantism and, 477; in Roman empire, 504; Roman road network and, 576n8; urbanization rates in Europe (post-1500), 371–76, 373–74, 580n82
Vandals, 132, 134, 135, 138, 153
van Zanden, Jan Luiten, 375, 496, 515, 585n185, 589n19, 597–98n73, 598n81
Venice, 55, 58, 189, 206, 355, 369, 377, 430, 439, 450, 509
Vespucci, Amerigo, 440
Vietnam, 185, 192, 230, 267, 303, 306, 437, 457
Vijayanagara empire, 297
Vikings, 157–58, 161, 430, 465
Visigoths, 132, 134, 135, 137, 138, 140, 148, 153, 239, 317, 349
Vladimir the Great (Kievan ruler), 291
Voigtländer, Nico, 499, 598n83
Voltaire, 474
Voth, Hans-Joachim, 499, 598n83
Vries, Peer, 344, 391, 406, 497, 538n13, 539n22, 567n26, 576n7, 579n63, 582n131, 596n42, 596n44, 596n58
Wallerstein, Immanuel, 420, 440
Wang Anshi (Chinese chancellor), 405
Wang Mang (Chinese regent), 405
war and development, 9; England (post-1500), 382–90; European, 357–59, 579nn61–63, 586n207; financial development and, 368–69, 411, 581n102; increase in state capacity allowing for interstate conflict, 391; Roman empire and, 70–74, 79–82; social responses to warfare, 14; war-making capacity, 6–7. See also military mobilization
Warde, Paul, 537n8
War of the Spanish Succession, 208, 209
Weber, Max, 23, 491, 596n58
Weingast, Barry, 380
Western Europe. See Europe
Western Zhou. See Zhou regime
West Francia, 157, 158, 164
Wickham, Chris, 241, 539n23, 578n59
William the Conqueror (English king), 239
William of Orange, 203, 208–9
Wittfogel, Karl, 264, 566n11
Wong, Bin, 358, 389, 396, 413–14, 493, 495, 496, 586n215, 597n60, 597n71, 598n85
World War II, 12, 41
Wrigley, E. Anthony, 598n79
writing. See language and writing
Xerxes I (Achaemenid king), 112, 432
Xianbei, 242, 244, 246–48, 255, 280, 284, 289
Xiongnu, 174, 242, 244, 246, 251, 255, 283–88, 570nn53–54
Yates, Robin D. D., 583n157
Yuan empire, 229, 281, 403, 507
Zhao, Dingxin, 393–94, 412, 583n144
Zheng Chenggong, 445
Zheng He (Chinese eunuch), 433, 439, 445, 468
Zhenzong emperor, 241
Zhou regime: demise of, 221, 222, 570n52; in heyday of empire, 281; language and writing in, 308; religious beliefs in, 319; steppe effect in, 282, 285, 286; unity as concept in, 323
Zoroastrians, 207, 317
Zwingli, Ulrich, 474
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