25. Mary Madden et al., Teens and Technology 2013, Pew Research Center, March 13, 2013, http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/03/13/teens-and-technology-2013/.
26. Brendesha M. Tynes, “Online Racial Discrimination: A Growing Problem for Adolescents,” Science Brief. Psychological Science Agenda, December 2015, http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2015/12/online-racial-discrimination.aspx.
27. Ibid.
28. Susan Svrluga, “Black UPenn Freshmen Added to Racist Social Media Account with ‘Daily Lynching’ Calendar,” Washington Post, November 11, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/11/11/black-upenn-freshmen-added-to-racist-social-media-account-with-daily-lynching-calendar/.
29. Tynes, “Online Racial Discrimination.”
30. Signithia Fordham and John U. Ogbu, “Black Students’ School Success: Coping with the Burden of ‘Acting White,’” Urban Review 18 (1986): 176–206.
31. Ibid., 181.
32. Ivory A. Toldson, “The ‘Acting White’ Theory Doesn’t Add Up,” The Root, January 30, 2013, http://www.theroot.com/articles/politics/2013/01/acting_white_theory_black_academic_achievement_based_on_other_factors/.
33. Brian K. Bridges, Janet T. Awokoya, and Frances Messano, Done to Us, Not with Us: African American Parent Perceptions of K–12 Education (Washington, DC: Frederick Patterson Research Institute, United Negro College Fund), https://www.uncf.org/pages/FDPRI-Reports.
34. Renee Stepler, “Hispanic, Black Parents See College Degree as Key for Children’s Success,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, February 24, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/02/24/hispanic-black-parents-see-college-degree-as-key-for-childrens-success/.
35. Karolyn Tyson, William Darity Jr., and Domini R. Castellino, “It’s Not ‘A Black Thing’: Understanding the Burden of Acting White and Other Dilemmas of High Achievement,” American Sociological Review 70, no. 4 (August 2005): 582–605.
36. Mickelson and Velasco, “Bring It On!”
37. Karolyn Tyson, “The Making of a ‘Burden’: Tracing the Development of a ‘Burden of Acting White’ in Schools,” in Horvat and O’Connor, Beyond Acting White, 61.
38. Mickelson and Velasco, “Bring It On!,” 41.
39. Tyson, “The Making of a ‘Burden,’” 85.
40. Ibid.
41. Signithia Fordham, “Racelessness as a Factor in Black Students’ School Success: Pragmatic Strategy or Pyrrhic Victory?” Harvard Educational Review 58, no. 1 (1988): 54–84.
42. Graham, “I Taught My Black Kids That Their Elite Upbringing Would Protect Them from Discrimination. I Was Wrong.”
43. For further discussion of this point, see Richard L. Zweigenhaft and G. William Domhoff, Blacks in the White Establishment? A Study of Race and Class in America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 155.
44. Ibid.
45. Mickelson and Velasco, “Bring It On!,” 42.
46. Lori A. Barker, “Presidents, Stereotypes, and Prototypes, Oh My!: Understanding the Psychological Impact of Obama,” in Obama on Our Minds: The Impact of Obama on the Psyche of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 17.
47. Hollie Chessman and Lindsay Wayt, “What Are Students Demanding?,” Higher Education Today, January 13, 2016, https://higheredtoday.org/2016/01/13/what-are-students-demanding/.
48. Chester Pierce, “Mundane Extreme Environment and Its Effects on Learning,” in Learning Disabilities: Issues and Recommendations for Research, ed. Suzanne Gage Brainard (Washington, DC: National Institute of Education, 1975), 111–118.
49. Daphna Oyserman, Daniel Brickman, and Marjorie Rhodes, “Racial-Ethnic Identity: Content and Consequences for African American, Latino and Latina Youths,” in Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities: Social Categories, Social Identities, and Educational Participation, ed. Andrew J. Fuligni (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007), 91–114.
50. See Mary C. Waters, “The Intersection of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in Identity Development of Caribbean American Teens,” in Leadbeater and Way, Urban Girls, 65–84. See also Sherri-Ann P. Butterfield, “To Be Young, Gifted, Black, and Somewhat Foreign: The Role of Ethnicity in Black Student Achievement,” in Horvat O’Connor, Beyond Acting White, 133–155.
51. Tina Q. Richardson et al., “African and Afro-Caribbean American Identity Development,” in Ponterotto et al., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 232.
52. Waters, “The Intersection of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in Identity Development of Caribbean American Teens.”
53. The METCO program was established in 1966 under the state’s Racial Imbalance Act, passed by the Massachusetts General Court in 1965. METCO was established to provide (1) the opportunity for an integrated public school education for urban Black children and other children of color from racially imbalanced schools in Boston by placing them in suburban schools, (2) a new learning experience for suburban children, and (3) a closer understanding and cooperation between urban and suburban parents and other citizens in the Boston metropolitan area. Thirty-four suburban communities participate in the METCO program.
54. For a more complete description of the program and its evaluation, see B. D. Tatum et al., “Student Efficacy Training: An Evaluation of One Middle School’s Programmatic Response to the Eastern Massachusetts Initiative” (presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, April 9, 1996).
55. Claude M. Steele, “Thin Ice: Stereotype Threat and Black College Students,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1999, 44–54.
56. Geoffrey L. Cohen and Claude M. Steele, “A Barrier of Mistrust: How Negative Stereotypes Affect Cross-Race Mentoring,” in Improving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education, ed. Joshua Aronson (San Diego, CA: Academic, 2002).
57. Claude M. Steele, Whistling Vivaldi and Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2010).
58. Catherine Good, Carol S. Dweck, and Joshua Aronson, “Social Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Self-Theories,” in Fuligni, Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities, 115–135.
59. Ibid.
60. Claude M. Steele, “Stereotype Threat and African-American Student Achievement,” in Young, Gifted and Black: Promoting High Achievement Among African-American Students, ed. Theresa Perry, Claude Steele, and Asa Hilliard III (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003), 121.
61. Claude M. Steele and Joshua Aronson, “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African-Americans,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 5 (1995): 797–811.
62. Good, Dweck, and Aronson, “Social Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Self-Theories.”
63. Ibid.
64. Spelman College has been recognized by the National Science Foundation as the leading undergraduate institution for graduating Black women who go on to earn PhDs in the sciences.
65. Steele, “Thin Ice,” 51.
66. Steele, “Stereotype Threat and African-American Student Achievement,” 126–127.
67. Ibid., 126.
68. Jeff Howard, Getting Smart: The Social Construction of Intelligence (Waltham, MA: Efficacy Institute, 1992).
69. Carol Dweck, “Messages That Motivate: How Praise Molds Students’ Beliefs, Motivation, and Performance (In Surprising Ways),” in Aronson, Improving Academic Achievement, 38–60.
70. Joshua Aronson, Carrie B. Fried, and Catherine Good, “Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38, no. 2 (2002): 113–125.
71. Lisa S. Blackwell, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol Sorich Dweck, “Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition,” Child Development 78, no. 1 (January–February 2007): 246–263.
72. Good, Dweck, and Aronson, “Social Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Self-Theories,” 131.
Chapter 5: Racial Identity in Adulthood
1. Over the years I have met White classmat
es at Wesleyan reunions and have had conversations about how it was that our paths did not intersect meaningfully when we were in college. Though in classes together, we were living parallel lives.
2. Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor et al., “Ethnic and Racial Identity During Adolescence and into Young Adulthood: An Integrated Conceptualization,” Child Development 85, no. 1 (2014): 21–39.
3. Ibid., 25.
4. For more information, see Walter R. Allen, Edgar G. Epps, and Nesha Z. Haniff, eds., College in Black and White: African American Students in Predominantly White and in Historically Black Public Universities (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991). See also Frank W. Hale Jr., How Black Colleges Empower Black Students: Lessons for Higher Education (Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 2006).
5. Mark K. Fiegener and Steven L. Proudfoot, “Baccalaureate Origins of U.S.-Trained S&E Doctorate Recipients,” InfoBrief, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, National Science Foundation, April 2013, NSF 13-323, https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf13323/nsf13323.pdf.
6. Walter R. Allen, “The Color of Success: African-American College Student Outcomes at Predominantly White and Historically Black Public Colleges and Universities,” Harvard Educational Review 62, no. 1 (1992): 26–44. The National Study of Black College Students (NSBCS) surveyed more than 2,500 Black college students attending a total of sixteen public universities (eight predominantly White and eight historically Black) about their college experiences and outcomes.
7. Jake New, “Survey Finds Big Differences Between Black HBCU Graduates, Those Who Attended Other Institutions,” Inside Higher Ed, October 28, 2015, https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/10/28/survey-finds-big-differences-between-black-hbcu-graduates-those-who-attended-other.
8. Though overall the percentage of Black students attending college has risen, the percentage choosing to attend HBCUs has declined from 18 percent in 1976 to 8 percent in 2014, according to the National Center for Education Statistics. “Historically Black Colleges and Universities,” Fast Facts, National Center for Education Statistics, https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=667.
9. An example of that kind of help can be found in a discussion of White students’ responses to learning about the racial identity development process of students of color. See Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Talking About Race, Learning About Racism: An Application of Racial Identity Development Theory in the Classroom,” Harvard Educational Review 62, no. 1 (1992): 1–24.
10. Margarita Azmitia, Moin Syed, and Kimberly Radmacher, “On the Intersection of Personal and Social Identities: Introduction and Evidence from a Longitudinal Study of Emerging Adults,” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development: The Intersections of Personal and Social Identities 2008, no. 120 (Summer 2008): 1–16.
11. Malcolm X with Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Grove Press, 1965), 174.
12. Michael E. Dyson, Race Rules: Navigating the Color Line (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 151.
13. Melanie Eversley, “Thousands Pack D.C. for 20th Anniversary of Million Man March,” USA Today, October 10, 2015, http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/10/10/washington-dc-million-man-march-20th-anniversary/73728720/.
14. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1990), 96.
15. The National Survey of Black Americans (NSBA) was the first in a series of major research projects undertaken by social scientists at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan to collect and analyze high-quality national survey data on the social, psychological, economic, and political behaviors of Black Americans. The NSBA and the major studies that followed it are all part of the Program for Research on Black Americans (PRBA) at the Institute for Social Research. The PRBA has involved thousands of Black participants in both face-to-face and telephone interviews. The findings of the PRBA are reported in James S. Jackson, ed., Life in Black America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1991).
16. See Robert Joseph Taylor and Linda M. Chatters, “Religious Life,” in Jackson, Life in Black America, 105–123.
17. For an in-depth discussion of alternative patterns of Black REC-identity development, see William E. Cross Jr. and Peony Fhagen-Smith, “Patterns of African American Identity Development: A Life Span Perspective,” in New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: A Theoretical and Practical Anthology, ed. Charmaine L. Wijeyesinghe and Bailey W. Jackson III (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 243–270.
18. Azmitia, Syed, and Radmacher, “On the Intersection of Personal and Social Identities,” 13.
19. Thomas A. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” The Counseling Psychologist 17, no. 2 (1989): 187–226.
20. Daniel J. Levinson, The Seasons of a Man’s Life (New York: Knopf, 1978).
21. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” 202.
22. Beverly Daniel Tatum, Assimilation Blues: Black Families in a White Community (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 85.
23. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” 196.
24. Tatum, Assimilation Blues, 99.
25. Ibid., 108.
26. Adia Harvey Wingfield, “Being Black—but Not Too Black—in the Workplace,” The Atlantic, October 14, 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/10/being-black-work/409990/.
27. Tatum, Assimilation Blues, 79.
28. William E. Cross and T. Binta Cross, “Theory, Research, and Models,” in Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child, ed. Stephen M. Quintana and Clark McKown (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons, 2008), 176.
29. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” 204.
30. Gerald Early, introduction to Lure and Loathing: Essays on Race, Identity, and the Ambivalence of Assimilation (New York: Penguin, 1993), xxiii.
31. See Erik Erikson, chap. 8 in Childhood and Society (New York: W. W. Norton, 1950).
32. Rose C. Gibson, “Retirement,” in Jackson, Life in Black America, 179–198.
33. W. E. Cross, “The Psychology of Nigrescence: Revising the Cross Model,” in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, ed. Joseph G. Ponterotto et al. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995), 116.
34. The concept of tokenism is explored in Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, 1977). See also A Tale of O (video), prod. Barry A. Stein (Cambridge, MA: Goodmeasure, 1979); and Rosabeth Moss Kanter with Barry A. Stein, A Tale of “O”: On Being Different in an Organization (New York: Harper Colophon, 1980).
35. Erin Osterhaus, “Survey: Employee Resource Groups Help Engage Gen Y Workers,” New Talent Times, July 28, 2014, http://new-talent-times.softwareadvice.com/employee-resource-groups-engage-gen-y-0714/.
Chapter 6: The Development of White Identity
1. Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “White Educators as Allies: Moving from Awareness to Action,” in Off White: Readings on Race, Power, and Society, ed. Michelle Fine et al. (New York: Routledge, 2004), 333.
2. Debby Irving, Waking Up White and Finding Myself in the Story of Race (Cambridge, MA: Elephant Room Press, 2014), xi.
3. Janet E. Helms, ed., Black and White Racial Identity: Theory, Research, and Practice (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1990).
4. Paul Kivel, Uprooting Racism: How White People Can Work for Racial Justice, 3rd ed. (Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers, 2011), 10–11.
5. There are other models of White racial identity development; however, Helms’ model is used here because it is the most commonly cited of the White identity models and is the one most often used in empirical investigations of White racial identity. For more information, see Lisa B. Spanierman and Jason R. Soble, “Understanding Whiteness: Previous Approaches and Possible Directions in the Study of White Racial Attitudes and Identity,” in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 3rd ed., ed. Joseph G. Ponterotto et al. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2010), 283–299.
6. Janet Helms
has changed her terminology from stages to statuses in describing this six-part model. Helms discusses the change in terminology in her article “An Update of Helms’ White and People of Color Racial Identity Models,” in Ponterotto et al., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 181–198.
7. Peggy McIntosh, “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack,” Peace and Freedom, July/August 1989, 12.
8. Sonia Scherr, “Children of Extremists Denounce Parents’ Beliefs,” Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law Center, November 30, 2009, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/children-extremists-denounce-parents’-beliefs.
9. Robert T. Carter, “Is White a Race? Expressions of White Racial Identity,” in Fine et al., Off White, 201.
10. Jill Robbins, “How I Finally ‘Got’ the Meaning of White Privilege,” Huffington Post, July 8, 2016, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jill-robbins/what-white-privilege-means_b_10874218.html.
11. Ethnic Notions, produced and directed by Marlon Riggs (San Francisco: Resolution/California Newsreel, 1986), video.
12. Robin DiAngelo, What Does It Mean to Be White? Developing White Racial Literacy, rev. ed. (New York: Peter Lang, 2016), 247.
13. This interview was conducted by my graduate student, Elizabeth Knaplund, as part of a study we conducted on the relational impact of antiracist activity on the lives of White women. See Beverly Daniel Tatum and Elizabeth G. Knaplund, “Outside the Circle: The Relational Implications for White Women Working Against Racism,” Work in Progress, no. 78 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1996).
Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? Page 48
