14. McIntosh, “White Privilege,” 11.
15. See Nancie Zane, “Interrupting Historical Patterns: Bridging Race and Gender Gaps Between Senior White Men and Other Organizational Groups,” in Fine et al., Off White, 349.
16. Jews are a multiracial group, including Jews of African descent. For a helpful discussion of the complexity of Jewish racial identity, see Melanie Kaye/Kantrowitz, “Jews in the U.S.: The Rising Costs of Whiteness,” in Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi (New York: Routledge, 1996), 121–138. See also Warren J. Blumenfeld, “Inside and Outside: How Being an Ashkenazi Jew Illuminates and Complicates the Binary of Racial Privilege,” chap. 12 in Everyday White People Confront Racial and Social Injustice: 15 Stories, ed. Eddie Moore Jr., Marguerite W. Penick-Parks, and Ali Michael (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2015).
17. Heather W. Hackman, “Calling Out the Wizard Behind the Curtain,” chap. 5 in Moore, Everyday White People Confront Racial and Social Injustice.
18. Lawrence and Tatum, “White Educators as Allies.”
19. Lois Stalvey, The Education of a WASP (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, [1970] 1989), 151.
20. Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993).
21. Ruth Frankenberg, “‘When We Are Capable of Stopping, We Begin to See’: Being White, Seeing Whiteness,” in Thompson and Tyagi, Names We Call Home, 14.
22. Ibid.
23. Morris Dees with Steve Fiffer, A Season of Justice: A Lawyer’s Own Story of Victory over America’s Hate Groups (New York: Touchstone, 1991).
24. Mab Segrest, Memoir of a Race Traitor (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
25. Virginia Foster Durr, Outside the Magic Circle: The Autobiography of Virginia Foster Durr, ed. Hollinger F. Barnard (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985). An excerpt of this oral history can also be found in Anne Colby and William Damon, Some Do Care: Contemporary Lives of Moral Commitment (New York: Free Press, 1992).
26. Stalvey, The Education of a WASP.
27. Becky Thompson, A Promise and a Way of Life: White Antiracist Activism (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 2001).
28. Bernestine Singley, When Race Becomes Real: Black and White Writers Confront Their Personal Histories (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2002).
29. Tim Wise, White Like Me: Reflections on Race from a Privileged Son—The Remix, rev. ed (Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull Press, 2011).
30. Debby Irving, Waking Up White and Finding Myself in the Story of Race (Cambridge, MA: Elephant Room Press, 2014).
31. Shelly Tochluk, Witnessing Whiteness: The Need to Talk About Race and How to Do It, 2nd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Education, 2010).
32. Mark R. Warren, Fire in the Heart: How White Activists Embrace Racial Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
33. Eddie Moore Jr., Marguerite W. Penick-Parks, and Ali Michael, eds., Everyday White People Confront Racial and Social Injustice: 15 Stories (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2015).
34. Warren, Fire in the Heart, x.
35. Andrea Ayvazian, “Interrupting the Cycle of Oppression: The Role of Allies as Agents of Change,” Fellowship, January/February 1995, 7–10.
36. For an example of such a group in process, see Becky Thompson and White Women Challenging Racism, “Home/Work: Antiracism Activism and the Meaning of Whiteness,” in Fine et al., Off White, 354–366.
37. For more information about Showing Up for Racial Justice (SURJ) and their commitment to working with the poor and working-class, visit www.showingupforracialjustice.org/about and http://www.showingupforracialjustice.org/pwc_commitment.
38. For a discussion of the value of Whites-only support groups, see Becky Thompson, “Time Traveling and Border Crossing: Reflections on White Identity,” in Thompson and Tyagi, Names We Call Home, 104–105.
39. Ibid., 104.
40. Clayton P. Alderfer, “A White Man’s Perspective on the Unconscious Process Within Black-White Relations in the United States,” in Human Diversity, ed. Edison J. Trickett, Roderick J. Watts, and Dina Birman (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994), 202.
41. Helms, Black and White Racial Identity, 66.
42. Tochluk, Witnessing Whiteness, 47–48.
43. For more information about AWARE-LA, see https://www.awarela.org.
44. Tochluk, Witnessing Whiteness, 49.
45. Ibid., 105.
Chapter 7: White Identity, Affirmative Action, and Color-Blind Racial Ideology
1. For more information about Whiteness Project and its creator, Whitney Dow, visit http://whitenessproject.org/.
2. Betsy Cooper et al., Anxiety, Nostalgia, and Mistrust: Findings from the 2015 American Values Survey, Public Religion Research Institute, http://www.prri.org/research/survey-anxiety-nostalgia-and-mistrust-findings-from-the-2015-american-values-survey/.
3. Ibid., 38.
4. Lee Anne Bell et al., “Racism and White Privilege,” in Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice, 3rd ed., ed. Maurianne Adams et al. (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2016), Kindle edition, locations 4543–4552.
5. Ibid.
6. Monique W. Morris, Black Stats: African Americans by the Numbers in the Twenty-First Century (New York: The New Press, 2014), Kindle edition, location 3269.
7. Pew Research Center, On Views of Race and Inequality, Blacks and Whites Are Worlds Apart, June 27, 2016, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/06/27/on-views-of-race-and-inequality-blacks-and-whites-are-worlds-apart/.
8. Ruy Teixeira and John Halpin, Building an All-In Nation: A View from the American Public, Center for American Progress, October 22, 2013, 3, https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/race/reports/2013/10/22/77665/building-an-all-in-nation/.
9. Ibid., 5.
10. Arlie Russell Hochschild, Strangers in Their Own Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right (New York: The New Press, 2016), Kindle edition, location 2306.
11. For more information about the history of affirmative action, see Frances A. Holloway, “What Is Affirmative Action?” and Dalmas A. Taylor, “Affirmative Action and Presidential Executive Orders,” both in Affirmative Action in Perspective, ed. Fletcher A. Blanchard and Faye J. Crosby (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989).
12. See Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (New York: Mariner Books, 2006).
13. Faye J. Crosby and Alison M. Konrad, “Affirmative Action in Employment,” Diversity Factor 10, no. 2 (Winter 2002): 5–9.
14. Ibid.
15. Faye J. Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 6.
16. Faye J. Crosby, “Understanding Affirmative Action,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 15, no. 1–2 (1994): 13–41.
17. Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action, 5.
18. I have borrowed this phrase from Stephen Carter, who argues that when candidates of color are “too good to ignore,” affirmative action programs should be unnecessary. See Stephen Carter, Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby (New York: Basic Books, 1991).
19. For a discussion of the American preference for process-oriented affirmative action, see Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action, chap. 3.
20. Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination,” American Economic Review 94, no. 4 (September 2004): 991–1013.
21. Devah Pager, “The Mark of a Criminal Record,” American Journal of Sociology 108, no. 5 (March 2003): 937–975.
22. Devah Pager, Bruce Western, and Bart Bonikowski, “Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment,” American Sociological Review 74 (2009): 777–799.
23. Ibid., 787.
24. John F. Dovidio, Jeffrey Mann, and Samuel L. Gaertner, “Resistance to Affirmative A
ction: The Implications of Aversive Racism,” in Blanchard and Crosby, Affirmative Action in Perspective, 86.
25. John F. Dovidio and Samuel L. Gaertner, “Aversive Racism,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 36 (2004), 4.
26. Ibid., 17.
27. Ibid., 18.
28. This description of the IAT is taken from the Project Implicit website’s “Frequently Asked Questions” section, https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/faqs.html#faq2.
29. Mahzarin R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald, Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People (New York: Random House Publishing Group. 2013), Kindle edition, locations 707–710.
30. Ibid., locations 729–732.
31. Ibid., locations 755–758.
32. Institute of Medicine, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Healthcare (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2002).
33. Banaji and Greenwald, Blindspot, locations 2386–2398.
34. Ibid., locations 2976–2977.
35. Ibid., locations 3083–3091
36. See “Frequently Asked Questions,” Project Implicit, https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/faqs.html. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
37. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014), 3.
38. Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1993).
39. Helen Neville, Miguel Gallardo, and Derald Wing Sue, eds., The Myth of Racial Color Blindness: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2016,) Kindle edition, locations 216–218.
40. Ibid., locations 247–248.
41. Ian Haney López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 137.
42. Lee Anne Bell, “Telling on Racism: Developing a Race-Conscious Agenda,” in Neville, Gallardo, and Wing Sue, The Myth of Racial Color Blindness, locations 2297–2298.
43. John F. Dovidio, “Changing the Course of Race Relations in America: From Prevention of Discrimination to Promotion of Racial Equality,” in Obama on Our Minds: The Impact of Obama on the Psyche of America, ed. Lori A. Barker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 103.
44. Drew DeSilver, “Supreme Court Says States Can Ban Affirmative Action; 8 Already Have,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, April 22, 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/22/supreme-court-says-states-can-ban-affirmative-action-8-already-have/.
45. Scott E. Page, The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
46. Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action, 112.
47. For a discussion of how the concept of aversive racism might apply to discriminatory treatment of Hispanics, see John. F. Dovidio et al., “Cognitive and Motivational Bases of Bias: Implications of Aversive Racism for Attitudes Toward Hispanics,” in Hispanics in the Workplace, ed. Stephen B. Knouse, Paul Rosenfeld, and Amy L. Culbertson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 75–106. For a discussion of affirmative action as it relates to other groups, see George E. Curry, ed., The Affirmative Action Debate, chap. 5, “Beyond Black and White” (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996).
48. Audrey J. Murrell et al., “Aversive Racism and Resistance to Affirmative Action: Perceptions of Justice Are Not Necessarily Color Blind,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 15, no. 1–2 (1994): 81.
49. Of course the evaluation of scores on such standardized tests as the SAT and the GRE must be done with the understanding that the predictive validity of such tests varies among racial and gender groups. For an interesting investigation of the impact of racial variables on test performance, see Claude M. Steele and Joshua Aronson, “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African-Americans,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 5 (1995): 797–811.
50. Fletcher A. Blanchard, “Effective Affirmative Action Programs,” in Blanchard and Crosby, Affirmative Action in Perspective, 193–207.
51. See the prologue for discussion of the most recent Supreme Court rulings regarding affirmative action and college admissions.
52. Faye J. Crosby, “Confessions of an Affirmative Action Mama,” in Fine et al., Off White, 185.
Chapter 8: Critical Issues in Latinx, Native, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Middle Eastern / North African Identity Development
1. Sonia Nieto and Patty Bode, Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education, 6th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2012), 250.
2. Skin Deep: College Students Confront Racism, produced and directed by Frances Reid (San Francisco: Resolution/California Newsreel, 1995), video.
3. Ibid.
4. Amani Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl: A Coming of Age (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016), Kindle edition, location 36.
5. An excellent source for a multicultural history of these and other groups in the United States is Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993).
6. Jean Phinney, “A Three-Stage Model of Ethnic Identity Development in Adolescence,” in Ethnic Identity: Formation and Transmission Among Hispanics and Other Minorities, ed. Martha E. Bernal and George P. Knight (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 61–79.
7. An excellent source for detailed discussions of identity development for these and other groups is Joseph G. Ponterotto et al., eds., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995). Subsequent editions of the Handbook are also very helpful.
8. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic Heritage Month 2016,” Facts for Features, October 12, 2016, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2016/cb16-ff16.html.
9. Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Key Facts About How the U.S. Hispanic Population Is Changing,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, September 8, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/08/key-facts-about-how-the-u-s-hispanic-population-is-changing/.
10. Renee Stepler and Anna Brown, Statistical Portrait of Hispanics in the United States, Pew Research Center, April 19, 2016, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2016/04/19/statistical-portrait-of-hispanics-in-the-united-states-key-charts/.
11. Eileen Patten, The Nation’s Latino Population Is Defined by Its Youth, Pew Research Center, April 20, 2016, http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/2016/04/PH_2016-04-20_LatinoYouth-Final.pdf.
12. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic Heritage Month 2016.”
13. Joel Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality: A Brief History of the Education of Dominated Cultures in the United States, 8th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2016), 92.
14. Ibid., 95.
15. Ibid., 96.
16. Patten, The Nation’s Latino Population Is Defined by Its Youth.
17. Seth Motel and Eileen Patten, Hispanics of Mexican Origin in the United States, 2010: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, June 27, 2012, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/06/27/hispanics-of-mexican-origin-in-the-united-states-2010/.
18. Roberto A. Ferdman, “The Great American Hispanic Wealth Gap,” Washington Post, July 1, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/07/01/hispanics-make-up-more-than-16-of-the-u-s-population-but-own-less-than-2-3-of-its-wealth/?utm_term=.f2f3abfad331.
19. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, chap. 5.
20. Nieto and Bode, Affirming Diversity, 179.
21. Gustavo López and Eileen Patten, Hispanics of Puerto Rican Origin in the United States, 2013: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, September 15, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-puerto-rican-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/.
22. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), 240.
23. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic Heritage Month 2016.”
24. Gustavo López, Hispanics of Cuban Origin in the United States, 2013: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, September 15, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-cuban-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/.
25. Gerardo Marín and Barbara VanOss Marín, Research with Hispanic Populations (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991).
26. Sylvia Rusin, Jie Zong, and Jeanne Batalova, “Cuban Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, April 7, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/cuban-immigrants-united-states.
27. Ibid.
28. Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Frances Robles, “Obama Ends Exemption for Cubans Who Arrive Without Visas,” New York Times, January 12, 2017, https://nyti.ms/2ipHEc5.
29. Rusin, Zong, and Batalova, “Cuban Immigrants in the United States.”
30. López, Hispanics of Cuban Origin in the United States, 2013.
31. Marín and Marín, Research with Hispanic Populations.
32. Aaron Terrazas, “Salvadoran Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, January 5, 2010, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/salvadoran-immigrants-united-states.
33. Gustavo López, Hispanics of Salvadoran Origin in the United States, 2013: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, September 15, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-salvadoran-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/.
34. Mark Hugo Lopez, Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, and Danielle Cuddington, Diverse Origins: The Nation’s 14 Largest Hispanic-Origin Groups, Pew Research Center, June 19, 2013, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2013/06/19/diverse-origins-the-nations-14-largest-hispanic-origin-groups/.
35. Marie L. Miville, “Latina/o Identity Development: Updates on Theory, Measurement, and Counseling Implications,” in Ponterotto et al., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 3rd ed.
36. For a discussion of racismo in Latino communities, see Lillian Comas-Díaz, “LatiNegra,” in The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as the New Frontier, ed. Maria P. P. Root (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 167–190.
37. Miguelina Germán, Nancy A. Gonzales, and Larry Dumka, “Familism Values as a Protective Factor for Mexican-Origin Adolescents Exposed to Deviant Peers,” Journal of Early Adolescence 29, no. 1 (2009): 17.
Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? Page 49
