Delphi Complete Works of Varro

by Marcus Terentius Varro

  19. On the whole I rather think that from chaos came choum and then cavum ‘hollow,’ and from this caelum ‘sky,’ since, as I have said, “this around and above, which holds in its embrace the earth,” is the cavum caelum ‘hollow sky.’ And so Andromeda says to Night,

  You who traverse the hollows of sky

  With your chariot marked by the stars.

  And Agamemnon says,

  In the shield of the sky, that soundeth on high,

  for a shield is a hollow thing.

  And Ennius likewise, with reference to a cavern,

  Enormous arches of the sky.

  20. Wherefore as from cavum ‘hollow’ come cavea ‘cavity,’ and caullae ‘hole or passage,’ and convallis ‘enclosed valley’ as being a cavata vallis ‘hollowed valley,’ and cavernae ‘caverns’ from the cavatio ‘hollowing,’ as a cavum ‘hollow thing,’ so developed caelum ‘sky’ from cavum, which itself was from chaos, from which, in Hesiod, come all things.

  21. Terra ‘earth’ is — as Aelius writes — named from this fact, that it teritur ’is trodden’;therefore it is written tera in the Books of the Augurs, with one R. From this, the place which is left near a town as common property for the farmers, is the territorium ‘territory,’ because it teritur ’is trodden’ most. From this, the linen garment which teritur ’is rubbed’ by the body, is an extermentarium. From this, in the harvest, is the tritura ‘threshing,’ because then the grain teritur ’is rubbed out,’ and the tribulum ‘threshing-sledge,’ with which it teritur ’is rubbed out.’ From this the boundaries of the fields are called termini, because those parts teruntur ‘are trodden’ most, on account of the boundary-lane. Therefore this word is pronounced with I in some places in Latium, not terminus, but terimen, and this form is found in Accius: it is the same word which the Greeks call τέρμων. Perhaps the Latin word comes from the Greek; for Evander, who came to the Palatine, was an Arcadian from Greece.

  22. A via ‘road’ is indeed an iter ‘way,’ because it teritur ’is worn down’ by vehendo ‘carrying in wagons’; an actus ‘driving-passage’ is likewise an iter, because it is worn down by agendo ‘driving of cattle.’ Moreover an ambitus ‘edge-road’ is an iter ‘way,’ because it teritur ’is worn’ by the going around: for an edge-road is a circuit; from this the interpreters of the Twelve Tables define the ambitus of the wall as its circuit. Therefore tera, terra; and from this the poets have called the surface of the earth, which sola ‘alone’ can be trod, the sola ‘soil’ of the earth.

  23. Humus ‘soil’ is, as they think, the same as terra ‘earth’; therefore, they say, Ennius meant men falling to the earth when he said,

  With their elbows the soil they were smiting.

  And because humus ‘soil’ is terra ‘earth,’ therefore he who is dead and covered with terra is humatus ‘inhumed.’ From this fact, if on the burial-mound of a Roman who has been burned on the pyre clods are not thrown, or if a bone of the dead man has been kept out for the ceremony of purifying the household, the household remains in mourning; in the latter case, until in the purification the bone is covered with humus — as the pontifices say, as long as he is in-humatus mot inhumed.’ Also he is called humilior ‘more humble,’ who is more downcast toward the humus; the lowest is said to be humillimus ‘most humble,’ because the humus is the lowest thing in the world.

  24. From this comes also humor ‘moisture.’ So therefore Lucilius says:

  Gone is the earth, disappeared into clouds and moisture.

  Pacuvius says:

  The land exhales a breeze and dawning damp; humida, the same as humecta ‘damp.’ From this, a marshy field is humidissimus ‘most damp’; from this, udus and uvidus ‘damp’; from this, sudor ‘sweat’ and udor ‘dampness.’

  25. If this moisture is in the ground no matter how far down, in a place from which it pote ‘can’ be taken, it is a puteus ‘well’; unless rather because the Aeolians used to say, like πύταμος for ποταμός ‘river,’ so also πύτεος ‘well’ for ποτέος ‘drinkable,’ from potus ‘act of drinking,’ and not φρέαρ ‘well’ as they do now. From putei ‘well’ comes the town-name, such as Puteoli, because around this place there are many hot and cold spring-waters; unless rather from putor ‘stench,’ because the place is often putidus ‘stinking’ with smells of sulphur and alum. Outside the towns there are puticuli ‘little pits,’ named from putei ‘pits,’ because there the people used to be buried in putei ‘pits’; unless rather, as Aelius writes, the puticuli are so called because the corpses which had been thrown out putescebant ‘used to rot’ there, in the public burial-place which is beyond the Esquiline. This place Afranius in a comedy of Roman life calls the Putiluci ‘pit-lights,’ for the reason that from it they look up through putei ‘pits’ to the lumen ‘light.’

  26. A lacus ‘lake’ is a large lacuna ‘hollow,’ where water can be confined. A palus ‘swamp’ is a paululum ‘small amount’ of water as to depth, but spread quite widely palam ‘in plain sight.’A stagnum ‘pool’ is from Greek, because they gave the name στεγνός ‘waterproof’ to that which has no fissure. From this, at farmhouses the stagna ‘pools’ are round, because a round shape most easily holds water in, but corners are extremely troublesome.

  27. Fluvius ‘river’ is so named because it fluit ‘flows,’ and likewise flumen ‘river’: from which is written, according to the law of city estates, Stillicidia ‘rain-waters’ and flumina ‘rivers’ shall be allowed to fall and to flow without interference.

  Between these there is this difference, that stillicidium ‘rain-water’ is so named because it cadit ‘falls’ stillatim ‘drop by drop,’ and flumen ‘river’ because it fluit ‘flows’ uninterruptedly.

  28. An amnis is that river which goes around something; for amnis is named from ambitus ‘circuit.’ Prom this, those who dwell around the Aternus are called Amiternini ‘men of Amiternum.’ From this, he who circum it ‘goes around’ the people as a candidate, ambit ‘canvasses,’ and he who does otherwise than he should, pleads his case in court as a result of his investigable ambitus ‘canvassing.’ Therefore the Tiber is called an amnis, because it ambit ‘goes around’ the Campus Martius and the City; the town Interamna gets its name from its position inter amnis ‘between rivers’; likewise Antemnae, because it lies ante amnis ‘in front of the rivers,’ where the Anio flows into the Tiber — a town which suffered in war and wasted away until it perished.

  29. The Tiber, because its source is outside Latium, if the name as well flows forth from there into our language, does not concern the Latin etymologist; just as the Volturnus, because it starts from Samnium, has nothing to do with the Latin language; but because the nearest town to it along the sea is Volturnum, it has come to us and is now a Latin name, as also the name Tiberinus. For we have both a colony named Volturnum and a god named Tiberinus.

  30. But about the name of the Tiber there are two accounts. For Etruria believes it is hers, and so does Latium, because there have been those who said that at first, from Thebris, the near-by chieftain of the Veians, it was called the Thebris. There are also those who in their writings have handed down the story that the Tiber was called Albula as its early Latin name, and that later it was changed on account of Tiberinus king of the Latins, because he died there; for, as they relate, it was his burial-place.

  31. As all natura is divided into sky and earth, so with reference to the regions of the sky the earth is divided into Asia and Europe. For Asia is that part which lies toward the noonday sun and the south wind, Europe that which lies toward the Wain and the north wind. Asia was named from the nymph who, according to tradition, bore Prometheus to Iapetus. Europe was named from Europa the daughter of Agenor, who, Manlius writes, was carried off from Phoenicia by the Bull; a remarkable bronze group of the two was made by Pythagoras at Tarentum.

  32. The various localities of Europe are inhabited by many different nations. They are in general denominated by names transferred from the men, like S
abini ‘the Sabine country,’ and Lucani ‘the country of the Lucanians,’ or derived from the names of the men, like Apulia and Latium, or both, like Etruria and Tusci. Where Latinus once had his kingdom, the field-lands as a whole are called Latian; but when taken piecemeal, they are named after the towns, as Praenestine from Praeneste, and Arician from Aricia.

  33. As our State Augurs set forth, there are five kinds of fields: Roman, Gabine, peregrine, hostic, uncertain. ‘Roman’ field-land is so called from Romulus, from whom Rome got its name. ‘Gabine’ is named from the town Gabii. The ‘peregrine’ is field-land won in war and reduced to peace, which is apart from the Roman and the Gabine, because in these latter the auspices are observed in one uniform manner: ‘peregrine’ is named from pergere ‘to go ahead,’ that is, from progredi ‘to advance’; for into it their first advance was made out of the Roman field-land. By the same reasoning, the Gabine also is peregrine, but because it has auspices of its own special sort it is held separate from the rest. ‘Hostic’ is named from the hostes ‘enemies.’ ‘Uncertain’ field-land is that of which it is not known to which of these four classes it belongs.

  34. Ager ‘field’ is the name given to land into which they used agere ‘to drive’ something, or from which they used to drive something, for the sake of the produce; but others say that it is because the Greeks call it ἀγρός. As an ager ‘field’ is that to which driving can be done, so that whereby driving can be done is an actus ‘driveway.’ Its least limit is set at four feet in width — four perhaps from the fact that by it a four-footed animal is driven — and one hundred and twenty feet in length. For a square actus, both in breadth and in length, the limit would be one hundred and twenty feet. There are many things which the ancients delimited with a multiple of twelve, like the actus of twelve ten-foot measures.

  35. A iugerum is the name given to two square actus, iuncti ‘joined’ together. A centuria ‘century’ was named originally from centum ‘one hundred’ iugera, and later, when doubled, kept its name, just as the tribus ‘tribes,’ which got their name from the three parts into which the people were divided, still keep the same name though their number has been multiplied. As where they agebant ‘drove’ were actus ‘driveways,’ so where they vehebant ‘transported’ were viae ‘highways’; whither they convehebant ‘transported’ their produce were villae ‘farmhouses.’ Whereby they went, they called an iter ‘road’ from itus ‘going’; where the going was narrow, was a semita ‘by-path,’ as though it were called a semiter ‘half-road.’

  36. Ager cultus ‘cultivated field-land’ is so named from the fact that there the seeds coalescebant ‘united’ with the land, and where it is not consitus ‘sown’ it is called incultus ‘uncultivated.’ Because they first used capere ‘to take’ the products from the level field-land, it was called campus ‘plain’; after they began to till the adjacent higher places, they called them colles ‘hills’ from colere ‘to till.’ The fields which they did not till on account of woods or that kind where flocks can be grazed, but still they took them for private use, they called saltus ‘woodland-pastures’ from the fact that their use was salvus ‘saved.’ These moreover the Greeks call νέμη ‘glades’ and we call nemora ‘groves.’

  37. Field-land, because it seemed to be the fundamentum ‘foundation’ of animal flocks and of money, was called fundus ‘estate,’ or else because it fundit ‘pours out’ many things every year. Vineta and vineae ‘vineyards,’ from the many vites ‘grape-vines.’ Vitis ‘grapevine’ from vinum ‘wine,’ this from vis ‘strength’; from this, vindemia ‘vintage,’ because it is vinidemia ‘wine-removal’ or vitidemia ‘vine-removal.’ Seges ‘standing grain’ from satus ‘sowing,’ that is, semen ‘seed.’ Semen ‘seed,’ because it is not completely that which comes from it; from this, seminaria ‘nursery-gardens,’ sementes ‘sowings,’ and likewise other words. What the segetes ‘fields of grain’ feruni ‘bear,’ are fruges ‘field-produce’; from frui ‘to enjoy’ comes fructus ‘fruits’; from spes ‘hope’ comes spicae ‘ears of grain,’ where are also the culmi ‘grain-stalks,’ because they grow on the top of the plain, and a top is a culmen.

  38. Where the cut grain-sheaves arescunt ‘dry out’ for threshing, is an area ‘threshing-floor.’ On account of the likeness to these, clean places in the city are called areae; from which may be also the Gods’ ara ‘altar,’ because it is clean — unless rather from ardor ‘fire’; for the intention of using it for an ardor makes it an ara; and from this the area itself is not far away, because it is the ardor of the sun which arefacit ‘does the drying.’

  39. Ager restibilis ‘land that withstands use’ is that which restituitur ’is restored’ and replanted yearly; on the other hand, that which receives an intermission is called novalis ager ‘renewable field-land,’ from novare ‘to renew.’ Arvus ‘ploughable’ and arationes ‘ploughings,’ from arare ‘to plough’; from this, what the ploughshare sustulit ‘has removed’ is a sulcus ‘furrow’; whither that earth is thrown, that is, proiecta ‘thrown forth,’ is the porca ‘ridge.’

  40. Prata ‘meadows’ are named from this, that they are parata ‘prepared’ without labour. Rura ‘country-lands’ are so called because in the fields the same operations must be done every year rursum ‘again,’ that you may again get their fruits. Sulpicius writes, however, that it is a just right for the country-lands of the populace to be divided for lavish distribution as bonus to discharged soldiers. Praedia ‘estates’ are named, as also praedes ‘bondsmen,’ praedes), a compound of prae + vas ‘guarantor’; praestare has the same prefix, but a different root. from praestare ‘to offer as security,’ because these, when given as pledge to the official authorities, praestent ‘guarantee’ the good faith of the party in the case.

  41. Where Rome now is, was called the Septimontium from the same number of hills which the City afterwards embraced within its walls; of which the Capitoline got its name because here, it is said, when the foundations of the temple of Jupiter were being dug, a human caput ‘head’ was found. This hill was previously called the Tarpeian, from the Vestal Virgin Tarpeia, who was there killed by the Sabines with their shields and buried; of her name a reminder is left, that even now its cliff is called the Tarpeian Rock.

  42. This hill was previously called the Saturnian Hill, we are informed by the writers, and from this Latium has been called the Saturnian Land, as in fact Ennius calls it. It is recorded that on this hill was an old town, named Saturnia. Even now there remain three evidences of it: that there is a temple of Saturn by the passage leading to the hill; that there is a Saturnian gate which Junius writes of as there, which they now call Pandana; that behind the temple of Saturn, in the laws for the buildings of private persons, the back walls of the houses are mentioned as “Saturnian walls.”

  43. The name of the Aventine is referred to several origins. Naevius says that it is from the aves ‘birds,’ because the birds went thither from the Tiber; others, that it is from King Aventinus the Alban, because he is buried there; others that it is the Adventine Hill, from the adventus ‘coming’ of people, because there a temple of Diana was established in which all the Latins had rights in common. I am decidedly of the opinion, that it is from advectus ‘transport by water’; for of old the hill was cut off from everything else by swampy pools and streams. Therefore they advehebantur ‘were conveyed’ thither by rafts; and traces of this survive, in that the way by which they were then transported is now called Velabrum ‘ferry,’ and the place from which they landed at the bottom of New Street is a chapel of the Velabra.

  44. Velabrum is from vehere ‘to convey.’ Even now, those persons are said to do velatura ‘ferrying,’ who do this for pay. The merces ‘pay’ (so called from merere ‘to earn’ and aes ‘copper money’) for this ferrying of those who crossed by rafts was a farthing. From this Lucilius wrote:

  Of a raft-markèd farthing.d 45. The remaining localities of the City were long ago divided off, when the twenty-seven shrines of the Argei were d
istributed among the four sections of the City. The Argei, they think, were named from the chieftains who came to Rome with Hercules the Argive, and settled down in Saturnia. Of these sections, the first is recorded as the Suburan region, the second the Esquiline, the third the Colline, the fourth the Palatine.

  46. In the section of the Suburan region, the first shrine is located on the Caelian Hill, named from Caeles Vibenna, a Tuscan leader of distinction, who is said to have come with his followers to help Romulus against King Tatius. From this hill the followers of Caeles are said, after his death, to have been brought down into the level ground, because they were in possession of a location which was too strongly fortified and their loyalty was somewhat under suspicion. From them was named the Vicus Tuscus ‘Tuscan Row,’ and therefore, they say, the statue of Vertumnus stands there, because he is the chief god of Etruria; but those of the Caelians who were free from suspicion were removed to that place which is called Caeliolum ‘the little Caelian.’

  47. Joined to the Caelian is Carinae ‘the Keels’; and between them is the place which is called Caeriolensis,obviously because the fourth shrine of the first region is thus written in the records:

  Caeriolensis: fourth shrine, near the temple of Minerva, in the street by which you go up the Caelian Hill; it is in a booth.

  Caeriolensis is so called from the joining of the Carinae with the Caelian. Carinae is perhaps from caerimonia ‘ceremony,’ because from here starts the beginning of the Sacred Way, which extends from the Chapel of Strenia to the citadel, by which the offerings are brought every year to the citadel, and by which the augurs regularly set out from the citadel for the observation of the birds. Of this Sacred Way, this is the only part commonly known, namely the part which is at the beginning of the Ascent as you go from the Forum.