Delphi Complete Works of Varro

by Marcus Terentius Varro

  XIX.

  De reliqua parte instrumenti, quod semivocale appellavi, Saserna ad iugera CC arvi boum iuga duo satis esse scribit, Cato in olivetis CCXL iugeris boves trinos. Ita fit ut, si Saserna dicit verum, ad C iugera iugum opus sit, si Cato, ad octogena. Sed ego neutrum modum horum omnem ad agrum convenire puto et utrumque ad aliquem. Alia enim terra facilior aut difficilior est: aliam terram boves proscindere nisi magnis viribus non possunt et saepe fracta bura relinquunt vomerem in arvo. Quo sequendum nobis in singulis fundis, dum sumus novicii, triplici regula, superioris domini instituto et vicinorum et experientia quadam. Quod addit asinos qui stercus vectent tres, asinum molarium, in vinea iugerum C iugum boum, asinorum iugum, asinum molendarium: in hoc genere semivocalium adiciendum de pecore ea sola quae agri colendi causa erunt et quae solent esse peculiaria pauca habenda, quo facilius mancipia se tueri et assidua esse possint. In eo numero non modo qui prata habent, ut potius oves quam sues habeant curant, sed etiam qui non solum pratorum causa habent, propter stercus. De canibus vero utique, quod villa sine iis parum tuta.

  [19.1] “With regard to the second division of equipment, to which I have given the name of inarticulate, Saserna says that two yoke of oxen are enough for 200 iugera of cultivated land, while Cato states that three yoke are needed for 240 iugera of olive-yard. Hence, if Saserna is right, one yoke is needed for every 100 iugera; if Cato is right, one of every 80. My own opinion is that neither of these standards will fit every piece of land, and that each will fit some particular piece. One piece, for instance, may be easier or harder to work than another, [2] and there are places which oxen cannot break unless they are unusually powerful, and frequently they leave the plough in the field with broken beam. Wherefore on each farm, so long as we are unacquainted with it, we should follow a threefold guide: the practice of the former owner, the practice of neighbouring owners, and a degree of experimentation. [3] As to his addition of three donkeys to haul manure and one for the mill (for a vineyard of 100 iugera, a yoke of oxen, a pair of donkeys, and one for the mill); under this head of inarticulate equipment it is to be added that of other animals only those that are to be kept which are of service in agriculture, and the few which are usually allowed as the private property of the slaves for their more comfortable support and to make them more diligent in their work. Of such animals, not only owners who have meadows prefer to keep sheep rather than swine because of their manure, but also those who keep animals for other reasons than the benefit of the meadows. As to dogs, they must be kept as a matter of course, for no farm is safe without them.

  XX.

  Igitur de omnibus quadripedibus prima est probatio, qui idonei sint boves, qui arandi causa emuntur. Quos rudis neque minoris trimos neque maioris quadrimos parandum: ut viribus magnis sint ac pares, ne in opere firmior inbecilliorem conficiat: amplis cornibus et nigris potius quam aliter ut sint, lata fronte, naribus simis, lato pectore, crassis coxendicibus. Hos veteranos ex campestribus locis non emendum in dura ac montana, nec non contra si incidit, ut sit vitandum. Novellos cum quis emerit iuvencos, si eorum colla in furcas destitutas incluserit ac dederit cibum, diebus paucis erunt mansueti et ad domandum proni. Tum ita subigendum, ut minutatim adsuefaciant et ut tironem cum veterano adiungant (imitando enim facilius domatur), et primum in aequo loco et sine aratro, tum eo levi, principio per harenam aut molliorem terram. Quos ad vecturas, item instituendum ut inania primum ducant plaustra et, si possis, per vicum aut oppidum: creber crepitus ac varietas rerum consuetudine celeberrima ad utilitatem adducit. Neque pertinaciter, quem feceris dextrum, in eo manendum, quod, si alternis fit sinister, fit laboranti in alterutra parte requies. Ubi terra levis, ut in Campania, ibi non bubus gravibus, sed vaccis aut asinis quod arant, eo facilius ad aratrum leve adduci possunt, ad molas et ad ea, siquae sunt, quae in fundo convehuntur. In qua re alii asellis, alii vaccis ac mulis utuntur, exinde ut pabuli facultas est; Nam facilius asellus quam vacca alitur, sed fructuosior haec. In eo agricolae hoc spectandum, quo fastigio sit fundus. In confragoso enim haec ac difficili valentiora parandum et potius ea quae per se fructum reddere possint, cum idem operis faciant.

  [20.1] “The first consideration, then, in the matter of quadrupeds, is the proper kind of ox to be purchased for ploughing. You should purchase them unbroken, not less than three years old and not more than four; they should be powerful and equally matched, so that the stronger will not exhaust the weaker when they work together; they should have large horns, black for choice, a broad face, flat nose, deep chest, and heavy quarters. [2] Oxen that have reached maturity on level ground should not be bought for rough and mountainous country; moreover, if the opposite happens to be the case, it should be avoided. When you have bought young steers, if you will fasten forked sticks loosely around their necks and give them food, within a few days they will grow gentle and fit for breaking to the plough. This breaking should consist in letting them grow accustomed to the work gradually, in yoking the raw ox to a broken one (for the training by imitation is easier), and in driving them first on level ground without a plough, then with a light one, and at first in sandy or rather light soil. [3] Draught cattle should be trained in a similar way, first drawing an empty cart, and if possible through a village or town. The constant noise and the variety of objects, by frequent repetition, accustom them to their work. The ox which you have put on the right should not remain continuously on that side, because if he is changed in turn to the left, he finds rest by working on alternate sides. [4] In light soils, as in Campania, the ploughing is done, not with heavy steers, but with cows or donkeys; and hence they can more easily be adapted to a light plough or a mill, and to doing the ordinary hauling of the farm. For this purpose some employ donkeys, others cows or mules, according to the fodder available; for a donkey requires less feed than a cow, but the latter is more profitable. [5] In this matter the farmer must keep in mind the conformation of his land; in broken and heavy land stronger animals must be got, and preferably those which, while doing the same amount of work, can themselves return some profit.

  XXI.

  Canes potius cum dignitate et acres paucos habendum quam multos, quos consuefacias potius noctu vigilare et interdiu clausos dormire. De indomitis quadripedibus ac pecore faciendum: si prata sunt in fundo neque pecus habet, danda opera ut pabulo vendito alienum pecus in suo fundo pascat ac stabulet.

  [21.1] “As to dogs, you should keep a few active ones of good traits rather than a pack, and train them rather to keep watch at night and sleep indoors during the day. With regard to unbroken animals and flocks; if the owner has meadow-lands on the farm and no cattle, the best practice is, after selling the forage, to feed and fold the flocks of a neighbour on the farm.

  XXII.

  De reliquo instrumento muto, in quo sunt corbulae, dolia, sic alia, haec praecipienda. Quae nasci in fundo ac fieri a domesticis poterunt, eorum nequid ematur, ut fere sunt quae ex viminibus et materia rustica fiunt, ut corbes, fiscinae, tribula, valli, rastelli; sic quae fiunt de cannabi, lino, iunco, palma, scirpo, ut funes, restes, tegetes. Quae e fundo sumi non poterunt, ea si empta erunt potius ad utilitatem quam ob speciem, sumptu fructum non extenuabunt; eo magis, si inde empta erunt potissimum, ubi ea et bona et proxime et vilissimo emi poterunt. Cuius instrumenti varia discrimina ac multitudo agri magnitudine finitur, quod plura opus sunt, si fines distant late. Itaque, Stolo inquit, proposita magnitudine fundi de eo genere Cato scribit, oliveti iugera CCXL qui coleret, eum instruere ita oportere, ut faceret vasa olearia iuga quinque, quae membratim enumerat, ut ex aere ahenea, urceos, nassiternam, item alia: sic e ligno et ferro, ut plostra maiora tria, aratra cum vomeribus sex, crates stercorarias quattuor, item alia; sic de ferramentis quae sint et qua opus multitudine, ut ferreas octo, sarcula totidem, dimidio minus palas, item alia. Item alteram formulam instrumenti fundi vinarii fecit, in qua scribit, si sit C iugerum, habere oportere vasa torcularia instructa trina, dolia cum operculis culleorum octingentorum, acinaria viginti, frumentaria viginti, item eius modi alia. Quae minus multa quidem alii, sed tant
um numerum culleorum scripsisse puto, ne cogeretur quotannis vendere vinum. Vetera enim quam nova et eadem alio tempore quam alio pluris. Item sic de ferramentorum varietate scribit permulta, et genere et multitudine qua sint, ut falces, palas, rastros, sic alia, quorum non nulla genera species habent plures, ut falces. Nam dicuntur ab eodem scriptore vineaticae opus esse XL, sirpiculae V, silvaticae V, arborariae III, rustariae X. Hic haec. At Scrofa, Instrumentum et supellectilem rusticam omnem oportet habere scriptam in urbe et rure dominum, vilicum contra ea ruri omnia certo suo quoque loco ad villam esse posita; quae non possunt esse sub clavi, quam maxime facere ut sint in conspectu oportet, eo magis ea quae in rariore sunt usu, ut quibus in vindemia utuntur et corbulae, et sic alia. Quae enim res cotidie videntur, minus metuunt furem.

  [22.1] “With regard to the rest of the equipment— ‘the mute’, a term which includes baskets, jars, and the like — the following rules may be laid down: nothing should be bought which can be raised on the place or made by men on the farm, in general articles which are made of withes and of wood, such as hampers, baskets, threshing-sledges, fans, and rakes; so too articles which are made of hemp, flax, rush, palm fibre, and bulrush, such as ropes, cordages, and mats. [2] Articles which cannot be got from the place, if purchased with a view to utility rather than for show, will not cut too deeply into the profits; and the more so if care is taken to buy them where they can be had of good quality, near by and at the same lowest price. The several kinds of such equipment and their number are determined by the size of the place, more being needed if the farm is extensive. [3] Accordingly,” said Stolo, “under this head Cato, fixing a definite size for his farm, writes that one who had under cultivation 240 iugera of olive land should equip it by assembling five complete sets of oil-pressing equipment; and he itemizes such equipment, as, copper kettles, pots, a pitcher with three spouts, and so forth; then implements made of wood and iron, as three large carts, six ploughs and ploughshares, four manure hampers, and so forth; then the kind and number of iron tools needed, as eight forks, as many hoes, half as many shovels, and so forth. [4] He likewise gives a second schedule for a vineyard, in which he writes that if it be one of 100 iugera it should have three complete pressing equipments, vats and covers to hold 800 cullei, twenty grape hampers, twenty grain hampers, and other like implements. Other authorities, it is true, give smaller numbers, but I imagine he fixed the number of cullei so high in order that the farmer might not be forced to sell his wine every year; for old wine brings a better price than new, and the same wine a better price at one time than at another. [5] He likewise says much of the several kinds of tools, giving the kind and number needed, such as hooks, shovels, harrows, and so forth; some classes of which have several subdivisions, such as the hooks — thus the same author says there will be needed forty pruning-hooks for vines, five for rushes, three for trees, ten for brambles.” So far Stolo; [6] and Scrofa resumed: “The master should keep, both in town and on the place, a complete inventory of tools and equipment of the farm, while the overseer on the place should keep all tools stored near the steading, each in its own place. Those that cannot be kept under lock and key he should manage to keep in sight so far as possible, and especially those that are used only at intervals; for instance, the implements which are used at vintage, such as baskets and the like; for articles which are seen every day run less risk from the thief.”

  XXIII.

  Suscipit Agrasius, Et quoniam habemus illa duo prima ex divisione quadripertita, de fundo et de instrumento, quo coli solet, de tertia parte expecto. Scrofa, Quoniam fructum, inquit, arbitror esse fundi eum qui ex eo satus nascitur utilis ad aliquam rem, duo consideranda, quae et quo quidque loco maxime expediat serere. Alia enim loca adposita sunt ad faenum, alia ad frumentum, alia ad vinum, alia ad oleum, sic ad pabulum quae pertinent, in quo est ocinum, farrago, vicia, medica, cytiscum, lupinum. Neque in pingui terra omnia seruntur recte neque in macra nihil. Rectius enim in tenuiore terra ea quae non multo indigent suco, ut cytisum et legumina praeter cicer; hoc enim quoque legumen, ut cetera quae velluntur e terra, non subsecantur, quae, quod ita leguntur, legumina dicta. In pingui rectius quae cibi sunt maioris, ut holus, triticum, siligo, linum. Quaedam etiam serenda non tam propter praesentem fructum quam in annum prospicientem, quod ibi subsecta atque relicta terram faciunt meliorem. Itaque lupinum, cum minus siliculam cepit, et non numquam fabalia, si ad siliquas non ita pervenit, ut fabam legere expediat, si ager macrior est, pro stercore inarare solent. Nec minus ea discriminanda in conserendo quae sunt fructuosa, propter voluptatem, ut quae pomaria ac floralia appellantur, item illa quae ad hominum victum ac sensum delectationemque non pertinent neque ab agri utilitate sunt diiuncta. Idoneus locus eligendus, ubi facias salictum et harundinetum, sic alia quae umidum locum quaerunt, contra ubi segetes frumentarias, ubi fabam potissimum seras, item alia quae arida loca secuntur: sic ut umbrosis locis alia seras, ut corrudam, quod ita petit asparagus; aprica, ut ibi seras violam et hortos facias, quod ea sole nutricantur, sic alia. Et alio loco virgulta serenda, ut habeas vimina, unde viendo quid facias, ut sirpeas, vallus, crates; alio loco ut seras ac colas silvam caeduam, alio ubi aucupere, sic ubi cannabim, linum, iuncum, spartum, unde nectas bubus soleas, lineas, restis, funes. Quaedam loca eadem alia ad serendum idonea. Nam et in recentibus pomariis dissitis seminibus in ordinemque arbusculis positis primis annis, antequam radices longius procedere possint, alii conserunt hortos, alii quid aliud, neque cum convaluerunt arbores, idem faciunt, ne violent radices.

  [23.1] Agrasius remarked: “And since we have the first two of the fourfold division, the farm and the equipment with which it is usually worked, I am waiting for the third topic.” “Since I hold,” continued Scrofa, “that the profit of the farm is that which arises from it as the result of planting for a useful purpose, two items are to be considered: what it is most expedient to plant and in what place. For some spots are suited to hay, some to grain, others to vines, others to olive, and so of forage crops, including clover, mixed forage, vetch, alfalfa, snail clover, and lupines. [2] It is not good practice to plant every kind of crop on rich soil, nor to plant nothing on poor soil; for it is better to plant in thinner soil those crops which do not need much nutriment, such as clover and the legumes, except the chick pea, which is also a legume, as are all those plants which are pulled from the ground and not mowed, and are called legumes from the fact that they are ‘gathered’ (leguntur) in this way. In rich soil it is better to plant those requiring more food, as cabbage, wheat, winter wheat, and flax. [3] Some crops are also to be planted not so much for the immediate return as with a view to the year later, as when cut down and left on the ground they enrich it. Thus, it is customary to plough under lupines as they begin to pod — and sometimes field beans before the pods have formed so far that it is profitable to harvest the beans — in place of dung, if the soil is rather thin. [4] And also in planting selection should be made of those things which are profitable for the pleasure they afford, such as those plots which are called orchards and flower gardens, and also of those which do not contribute either to the sustenance of man or to the pleasure of his senses, but are not without value to the farm. So a suitable place is to be chosen for planting a willow bed and a reed thicket, [5] together with other plants which prefer humid ground; and on the other hand places best suited for planting grain crops, beans, and other plants which like dry ground. Similarly, you should plant some crops in shady spots, as, for instance, the wild asparagus, because the asparagus prefers that type; while sunny ground should be chosen for planting violets and laying out gardens, as these flourish in the sun, and so forth. In still another place should be planted thickets, so that you may have withes with which to weave such articles as wicker wagon bodies, winnowing baskets, and hampers; and in another plant and tend a wood-lot, [6] in another a wood for fowling; and have a place for hemp, flax, rush, and Spanish broom, from which to make shoes for cattle, thread, cord, and rope. Some places are suitable at the same time for the planting of other crops; thus in you
ng orchards, when the seedlings have been planted and the young trees have been set in rows, during the early years before the roots have spread very far, some plant garden crops, and others plant other crops; but they do not do this after the trees have gained strength, for fear of injuring the roots.”

  XXIV.