Delphi Complete Works of Varro

by Marcus Terentius Varro

  [16] “After the purchase has been made we come to the second group of four points which are to be observed: they are those concerned with pasturage, breeding, feeding, and health. Of pasturage, which is the first point, there are three divisions: the preferable locality for the pasturage of the several species, the time, and the manner; thus, it is better to pasture goats on a bushy hillside than on a grassy plain, while the opposite is true of mares. Again, the same localities are not equally suited in summer and winter to the pasturing of all species. Hence, flocks of sheep are driven all the way from Apulia into Samnium for summering, and are reported to the tax-collectors, for fear of offending against the censorial regulation forbidding the pasturing of unregistered flocks; [17] and mules are driven in summer from the level Rosea into the high mountains of Burbur. One must also consider the preferable method of pasturing each species — by which I do not mean merely that a horse or an ox is content with hay, but that barley and beans should be fed at intervals to some of them, and that lupines should be fed to oxen, and alfalfa and clover to milch cows; and besides that for thirty days before mating more food should be given rams and bulls to increase their vigour, and food should be lessened for the females, because it is claimed that they conceive more readily when they are thin. [18] The second topic is that of breeding — by which I mean the process from conception to birth, these being the limits of pregnancy. The first point to be observed, therefore, is that of mating — the time at which opportunity for coition should be allowed each species; thus, the period from the beginning of the west wind to the vernal equinox is deemed best suited to swine, while that from the setting of Arcturus to the setting of Aquila is considered best for sheep. Consideration should also be given to the proper period before breeding begins, during which the males should be kept away from the females — a period which both stockmen and shepherds usually fix at two months for all animals. [19] The second division comprises the points to be watched in breeding, arising from the difference among species in the period of gestation; thus, the mare carries her young twelve months, the cow ten, the sheep and the goat five, the sow four. (Speaking of breeding, there is a story from Spain which, though incredible, is quite authentic, that on the shore of the ocean in Lusitania, in the district in which is situated the town of Olisipo, certain mares on Mount Taurus, at a particular time of year, are impregnated by the wind; just as in this country frequently occurs in the case of those hens the eggs of which are called hypenemia. But the foals of these mares do not live beyond three years.) Care must be taken that the young which have gone the full time or longer have a clean, soft place to stand in, and that they be not trampled. Lambs which are born after the full period are called cordi, the name being derived from the fact that they have remained in those deep-lying folds which are called chorion. [20] There is a third item — the practice to be observed in the matter of feeding, including the number of days on which the young may have the teat, at what times, and where; and if the mother is deficient in milk, that the young be allowed to suckle the udder of another mother. Such animals are called subrumi, ‘under the udder,’ the udder being called rumis, as I suppose, in old Latin. As a rule, lambs are not weaned under four months, kids under three, and pigs under two. Those of the last named which are pure for sacrifice and may be offered up, used to be called sacres; Plautus uses the term in his sentence: ‘What’s the price of sacred pigs?’ Similarly, oxen, fattened for public offerings, are called opimi, fatlings. [21] The fourth division is that of health — a complicated but extremely important matter, inasmuch as a sickly herd is a losing investment, and men frequently come to grief because it is not strong. There are two divisions of such knowledge, as there are in the treatment of human beings: in the one case the physician should be called in, while in the other even an attentive herdsman is competent to give the treatment. The topic has three heads: we must observe the cause of the several diseases, the symptoms displayed by such causes, and the proper method of treatment to be followed for each disease. [22] In general, sickness is caused by the fact that the animals are suffering from heat or from cold, or else from excessive work, or, on the other hand, from lack of exercise; or in case food or drink has been given them immediately after working, without a period of rest. The symptoms are that those which have fever from overwork keep the mouth open, pant fast with moist breath, and have hot bodies. The following is the treatment in such cases: [23] The animal is drenched with water, rubbed down with oil and warm wine, and, further, is sustained with food, and a covering is thrown over it to prevent a chill; in case of thirst tepid water is administered. If improvement is not obtained by such treatment, blood is let, usually from the head. Other diseases have other causes and other symptoms, and the man in charge of the herd should keep them all in written form.

  [24] “There remains the ninth point I have mentioned, common to both divisions — the proper number. For the man who is feeding a herd must decide on the size, determining how many herds and how large he is going to graze, so that his pasturage will not run short, and so that he will not have idle pasturage and hence lose his profit. He must also decide how many females to have in the flock for breeding, how many males, how many young of each sex, and how many culls are to be cut out. In the matter of feeding, if too many young are born you should follow the practice of some breeders, and wean some of them; the result usually being that the rest grow better.”

  [25] “Don’t get confused,” said Atticus, “and let your ninefold division get away from the matter of smaller and larger animals. How will you get a ninefold division in the case of mules and herdsmen, where there is neither breeding nor bearing? [26] I see how you can use it in the case of dogs. I grant you also that even in the case of the humans the ninefold division can be retained, as they keep women in their huts in the winter ranches, and some have them even in the summer, thinking that this is worth while in order the more easily to keep the herdsmen with their herds; and by the natural increase they enlarge their slave gangs and make the cattle-raising more profitable.” “The number,” I remark, “is not to be taken as precisely accurate, just as we do not mean to be taken exactly when we say that a thousand ships set forth against Troy, or speak of the centumviral court at Rome. So, if you wish, subtract two of the topics, coition and foaling, when you speak of mules.” [27] “Foaling?” asked Vaccius; “why, don’t you know that it has several times been asserted that a mule has borne a colt at Rome?” To back up his statement, I add that both Mago and Dionysius remark that the mule and the mare bring forth in the twelfth month after conception. Hence we must not expect all lands to agree, even if it is considered a portent when a mule bears young here in Italy. Swallows and storks, for instance, which bear in Italy, do not bear in all lands. Surely you are aware that the date-palms of Syria bear fruit in Judea but cannot in Italy. [28] Scrofa, however, remarked: “If you insist on having 81 sub-heads, omitting the breeding and feeding of mules, you may easily fill that double gap; two very important sources of revenue fall outside the enumeration. There is the shearing — the clipping or pulling of wool and goat hair — and another, which is even more important, the matter of milk and cheese. The Greek authorities treat this as a separate topic, calling it tyropoiia (cheese-making), and have had a great deal to say about it.

  II.

  Sed quoniam nos nostrum pensum absolvimus ac limitata est pecuaria quaestio, nunc rursus vos reddite nobis, o Epirotae, de una quaque re, ut videamus, quid pastores a Pergamide Maledove potis sint. Atticus, qui tunc Titus Pomponius, nunc Quintus Caecilius cognomine eodem, Ego opinor, inquit, incipiam primus, quoniam in me videre coniecisse oculos, et dicam de primigenia pecuaria. E feris enim pecudibus primum dicis oves comprehensas ab hominibus ac mansuefactas. Has primum oportet bonas emere, quae ita ab aetate, si neque vetulae sunt neque merae agnae, quod alterae nondum, alterae iam non possunt dare fructum. Sed ea melior aetas, quam sequitur spes, quam ea quam mors. De forma ovem esse oportet corpore amplo, quae lana multa sit et molli, villi
s altis et densis toto corpore, maxime circum cervicem et collum, ventrem quoque ut habeat pilosum. Itaque quae id non habent, maiores nostri apicas appellabant ac reiciebant. Esse oportet cruribus humilibus; caudis observate ut sint in Italia prolixis, in Syria brevibus. In primis videndum ut boni seminis pecus habeas. Id fere ex duabus rebus potest animadverti, ex forma et progenie: ex forma, si arietes sint fronte lana vestiti bene, tortis cornibus pronis ad rostrum, ravis oculis, lana opertis auribus, ampli, pectore et scapulis et clunibus latis, cauda lata et longa. Animadvertendum quoque lingua ne nigra aut varia sit, quod fere qui eam habent nigros aut varios procreant agnos. Ex progenie autem animadvertitur, si agnos procreant formosos. In emptionibus iure utimur eo, quo lex praescripsit. In ea enim alii plura, alii pauciora excipiunt; quidam enim pretio facto in singulas oves, ut agni cordi duo pro una ove adnumerentur, et si quoi vetustate dentes absunt, item binae pro singulis ut procedant. De reliquo antiqua fere formula utuntur. Cum emptor dixit “tanti sunt mi emptae?” Et ille respondit “sunt” et expromisit nummos, emptor stipulatur prisca formula sic,”illasce oves, qua de re agitur, sanas recte esse, uti pecus ovillum, quod recte sanum est extra luscam surdam minam, id est ventre glabro, neque de pecore morboso esse habereque recte licere, haec sic recte fieri spondesne?” Cum id factum est, tamen grex dominum non mutavit, nisi si est adnumeratum; nec non emptor pote ex empto vendito illum damnare, si non tradet, quamvis non solverit nummos, ut ille emptorem simili iudicio, si non reddit pretium.

  De alteris quattuor rebus deinceps dicam, de pastione, fetura, nutricatu, sanitate. Primum providendum ut totum annum recte pascantur intus et foris; stabula idoneo loco ut sint, ne ventosa, quae spectent magis ad orientem quam ad meridianum tempus. Ubi stent, solum oportet esse eruderatum et proclivum, ut everri facile possit ac fieri purum. Non enim solum ea uligo lanam corrumpit ovium, sed etiam ungulas, ac scabras fieri cogit. Cum aliquot dies steterunt, subicere oportet virgulta alia, quo mollius requiescant purioresque sint; libentius enim ita pascuntur. Faciendum quoque saepta secreta ab aliis, quo incientes secludere possis, item quo corpore aegro. Haec magis ad villaticos greges animaduertenda. Contra illae in saltibus quae pascuntur et a tectis absunt longe, portant secum crates aut retia, quibus cohortes in solitudine faciant, ceteraque utensilia. Longe enim et late in diversis locis pasci solent, ut multa milia absint saepe hibernae pastiones ab aestivis. Ego vero scio, inquam; nam mihi greges in Apulia hibernabant, qui in Reatinis montibus aestivabant, cum inter haec bina loca, ut iugum continet sirpiculos, sic calles publicae distantes pastiones. Eaeque ibi, ubi pascuntur in eadem regione, tamen temporibus distinguntur, aestate quod cum prima luce exeunt pastum, propterea quod tunc herba roscida meridianam, quae est aridior, iucunditate praestat. Sole exorto potum propellunt, ut redintegrantes rursus ad pastum alacriores faciant. Circiter meridianos aestus, dum defervescant, sub umbriferas rupes et arbores patulas subigunt, quoad refrigeratur. Aere vespertino rursus pascunt ad solis occasum. Ita pascere pecus oportet, ut averso sole agat; caput enim maxime ovis molle est. Ab occasu parvo intervallo interposito ad bibendum appellunt et rursus pascunt, quoad contenebravit; iterum enim tum iucunditas in herba redintegrabit. Haec a uergiliarum exortu ad aequinoctium autumnale maxime observant. Quibus in locis messes sunt factae, inigere est utile duplici de causa: quod et caduca spica saturantur et obtritis stramentis et stercoratione faciunt in annum segetes meliores. Reliquae pastiones hiberno ac verno tempore hoc mutant, quod pruina iam exhalata propellunt in pabulum et pascunt diem totum ac meridiano tempore semel agere potum satis habent.

  Quod ad pastiones attinet, haec fere sunt; quod ad feturam, quae dicam. Arietes, quibus sis usurus ad feturam, bimestri tempore ante secernendum et largius pabulo explendum. Cum redierunt ad stabula e pastu, hordeum si est datum, firmiores fiunt ad laborem sustinendum. Tempus optimum ad admittendum ab arcturi occasu ad aquilae occasum, quod quae postea concipiuntur, fiunt vegrandes atque imbecillae. Ovis praegnas est diebus CL. Itaque fit partus exitu autumnali, cum aer est modice temperatus et primitus oritur herba imbribus primoribus evocata. Quam diu admissura fit, eadem aqua uti oportet, quod commutatio et lanam facit variam et corrumpit uterum. Cum omnes conceperunt, rursus arietes secernendi, iam factis praegnatibus quod sunt molesti, obsunt. Neque pati oportet minores quam bimas saliri, quod neque natum ex his idoneum est, neque non ipsae fiunt deteriores; et non meliores quam trimae admissae. Deterrent ab saliendo, et fiscellas e iunco aliave qua re quod alligant ad naturam; commodius servantur, si secretas pascunt.

  In nutricatu, cum parere coeperunt, inigunt in stabula, eaque habent ad eam rem seclusa, ibique nata recentia ad ignem prope ponunt, quoad convaluerunt. Biduum aut triduum retinent, dum adcognoscant matrem agni et pabulo se saturent. Deinde matres cum grege pastum prodeunt, retinent agnos, ad quos cum reductae ad vesperum, aluntur lacte et rursus discernuntur, ne noctu a matribus conculcentur. Hoc item faciunt mane, antequam matres in pabulum exeant, ut agni satulli fiant lacte. Circiter decem dies cum praeterierunt, palos offigunt et ad eos alligant libro aut qua alia re levi distantes, ne toto die cursantes inter se teneri delibent aliquid membrorum. Si ad matris mammam non accedet, admovere oportet et labra agni unguere buturo aut adipe suilla et olfacere labra lacte. Diebus post paucis obicere iis viciam molitam aut herbam teneram, antequam exeunt pastum et cum reverterunt. Et sic nutricantur, quoad facti sunt quadrimestres. Interea matres eorum iis temporibus non mulgent quidam; qui id melius, omnino perpetuo, quod et lanae plus ferunt et agnos plures. Cum depulsi sunt agni a matribus, diligentia adhibenda est, ne desiderio senescant. Itaque deliniendum in nutricatu pabuli bonitate et a frigore et aestu ne quid laboret curandum. Cum oblivione iam lactis non desiderat matrem, tum denique compellendum in gregem ovium. Castrare oportet agnum non minorem quinque mensum, neque antequam calores aut frigora se fregerunt. Quos arietes summittere volunt, potissimum eligunt ex matribus, quae geminos parere solent. Pleraque similiter faciendum in ovibus pellitis, quae propter lanae bonitatem, ut sunt Tarentinae et Atticae, pellibus integuntur, ne lana inquinetur, quo minus vel infici recte possit vel lavari ac putari. Harum praesepia ac stabula ut sint pura maiorem adhibent diligentiam, quam hirtis. Itaque faciunt lapide strata, urina necubi in stabulo consistat. His quaecumque lubenter vescuntur, ut folia ficulnea et palea, vinacea, furfures, obiciuntur modice, ne parum aut nimium saturentur. Utrumque enim ad corpus alendum inimicum, ut maxime amicum cytisum et medica. Nam et pingues facit facillime et genit lacte.

  De sanitate sunt multa; sed ea, ut dixi, in libro scripta magister pecoris habet, et quae opus ad medendum, portat secum. Relinquitur de numero, quem faciunt alii maiorem, alii minorem. Nulli enim huius moduli naturales. Illud fere omnes in Epiro facimus, ne minus habeamus in centena soves hirtas singulos homines, in pellitas binos.

  [2.1] “But since I have completed my task, and the subject of stock-raising has been sketched in outline, you gentlemen of Epirus should take up the tale in your turn and let us see what the shepherds from Pergamis and Maledos can tell us under each head.” [2] Then Atticus, who at the time bore the name Titus Pomponius, but is now called Quintus Cornelius though he retains the same cognomen, began: “I suppose I should start the discussion, as you all seem to be looking to me, and I shall speak of the earliest branch of animal husbandry, as you claim that sheep were the first of the wild animals to be caught and tamed by man. The first consideration is that these be in good condition when purchased; with respect to age that they be neither too old nor mere lambs, the latter being not yet, and the former no longer profitable — though the age which is followed by hope is better than the one which is followed by death. [3] As to form, sheep should be full-bodied, with abundant soft fleece, with fibres long and thick over the whole body, especially about the shoulders and neck, and should have a shaggy belly also. In fact, sheep which did not have this our ancestors called ‘bald’ (apicas), and would have none of them. The legs should be short; and observe that the tail should be long in Italy but short in Syria. The most important point to watch is to have a flock from good stock. [4] This can usually be judg
ed by two points — the form and the progeny; by the form if the ram have a full coating of fleece on the forehead, have flat horns curving towards the muzzle, grey eyes, and ears overgrown with wool; if they are full-bodied, with wide chest, shoulders, and hind-quarters, and a wide, long tail. A black or spotted tongue is also to be avoided, for rams with such a tongue usually beget black or spotted lambs. The stock is determined by the progeny if they beget handsome lambs. [5] In purchasing we take advantage of the variation which the law allows, some making more and others fewer exceptions; thus, some purchasers, when the price is fixed by the head, stipulate that two late-born lambs count as one sheep, and in the case of those which have lost their teeth from age, that they also be reckoned two for one. With this exception, the ancient formula is generally employed: when the purchaser has said, ‘They are sold at such a price?’ and the seller has replied, ‘Yes,’ and the money has passed, the purchaser, using the old formula, says: [6] ‘You guarantee that the sheep in question are perfectly sound, up to the standard of a flock which is perfectly sound, excepting those blind of one eye, deaf, or minae (that is, with belly bare of wool), that they do not come from a diseased flock, and that title may legally pass — that all this may be properly done?’ Even after this has been agreed on, the flock does not change owners unless the money has been counted; and the purchaser still has the right to obtain a judgment against the vendor against the law of purchase and sale if he does not make delivery, even though no money has passed; just as the vendor may obtain a judgment against the purchaser under the same law if he does not make payment.