The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence

by Ervin Staub

19.Wyman, D. S. (1968). Paper walls: America and the refugee crisis, 1938-1941. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

  20.Taylor, F. (Trans, and Ed.). (1983). Goebbels’ diaries, 1933-1941. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

  21.Marcus, M. R. (1987). The Holocaust in history. Hanover: University Press of New England & Brandeis University Press.

  22.Fein, Accounting for genocide.

  23.Ibid.

  24.Arendt, H. (1963). Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the banality of evil. New York: Viking Press.

  25.Fein, Accounting for genocide, p. 126.

  26.Ibid.

  27.Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem.

  28.Fein, Accounting for genocide, p. 131.

  29.Bettelheim, B. (1952). Surviving and other essays. New York: Vintage Books.

  Davidowicz, War against the Jews.

  Hilberg, Destruction.

  30.Fein, Accounting for genocide, p. 204.

  31.Fein, H. (March/April 1980). Beyond the heroic ethic. Culture and Society, pp. 51-55.

  32.Kren and Rappoport, Holocaust.

  33.Des Pres, T. (1976). The survivor: An anatomy of life in the death camps. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  34.Ibid.

  Fein, Beyond the heroic ethic, pp. 51-55.

  35.An up-to-date source is:

  Schindler, J., & Freud, A. (1985). The analysis of defense: The ego and the mechanism of defense revisited. New York: International Universities Press.

  See also:

  Goleman, D. (1985). Vital lies, simple truths: The psychology of self deception. New York: Simon & Schuster.

  36.Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem.

  37.Fein, Accounting for genocide.

  38.Bluhm, H. O. (1948). How did they survive? Mechanisms of defense in Nazi concentration camps. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 2, 32.

  Bettelheim, B. (1943). Individual and mass behavior in extreme situations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38, 417-52.

  39.Seligman, M. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development and death. San Francisco: Freeman Press.

  40.Levin, N. (1973). The Holocaust: The destruction of European Jewry, 1933-1945. New York: Shocken Books.

  41.Warmbrunn, W. (1963). The Dutch under German occupation, 1940-1945. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

  See also Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem.

  42.Hallie, P. P. (1979). Lest innocent blood be shed: The story of the village of Le Chambon and how goodness happened there. New York: Harper & Row, p. 114.

  43.Ibid., p. 245.

  44.London, P. (1970). The rescuers: Motivational hypotheses about Christians who saved Jews from the Nazis. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press.

  Fogelman, E., & Weiner, V. L. (1985). The few, the brave, the noble. Psychology Today, 19, 60-65.

  Tec, N. (1986). When light pierced the darkness: Christian rescue of Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland. New York: Oxford University Press.

  45.Oliner, S. B., & Oliner, P. (1988). The altruistic personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe. New York: Free Press.

  46.Staub, E. (1978). Positive social behavior and morality. Vol. 1, Social and personal influences. New York: Academic Press.

  Idem. (1984). Steps toward a comprehensive theory of moral conduct: Goal orientation, social behavior, kindness and cruelty. In J. L. Gewirtz & W. M. Kurtines (Eds.), Morality, moral behavior, and moral development. New York: Wiley-Interscience.

  47.London, Rescuers.

  Tec, When light pierced the darkness.

  48.Oliner & Oliner, Altruistic personality, p. 210.

  49.Tec, When light pierced the darkness.

  50.Keneally, T. (1983). Schindler’s list. New York: Penguin Books.

  51.Marton, K. (1982). Wallenberg. New York: Ballentine Books.

  52.Staub, E. (July 1988). The roots of altruism and heroic rescue. The World and I, pp. 398-401, 399.

  53.Staub, E. (1988). The evolution of caring and nonaggressive persons and societies. In R. V. Wagner, J. deRivera, & M. Watkins (Eds.), Psychology and the promotion of peace. Journal of Social Issues, 44, 81-101.

  Chapter 12

  1.Issawi, C. (1980). The economic history of Turkey, 1800-1914. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  2.Karpat, K. H. (1985). The Ottoman population, 1830-1914: Demographic and social characteristics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

  3.Mears, E. G. (1924). Modern Turkey: A political-economic interpretation. New York: Macmillan, see especially Chap. 19.

  4.Miller, W. (1923). The Ottoman Empire and its successors 1901-1922. Cambridge-Cambridge University Press.

  Ahmad, F. (1969). The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908-1914. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  5.Issawi, Economic history.

  6.Mears, Modern Turkey.

  7.Lewis, R. (1971). Everyday life in Ottoman Turkey. New York: G. P. Putnam & Sons.

  Ramsauer, E. E., Jr. (1957) The Young Turks: Prelude to the revolution of 1908. New York: Russell & Russell.

  8.Issawi, Economic history.

  9. McCarthy, J. (1983). Muslims and minorities: The population of Ottoman Anatolia and the end of the empire. New York: New York University Press.

  10.Toynbee, A. J. (1915). Armenian atrocities: The murder of a nation. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

  Toynbee, A. J. (Ed.). (1916). The treatment of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915-1916. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office. (The author of the material compiled by Toynbee was Viscount Bryce.)

  11.Encyclopedia Britannica. (1922). Vol. 27, p. 458.

  12.Greene, F. D. (1895). The Armenian crisis in Turkey: The massacre of 1894, its antecedents and significance. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

  13.Ibid.

  14.Lewis, Everyday life.

  15.Ramsauer, Young Turks, pp. 119-20.

  16.Ibid., pp. 42-43.

  17.Ibid.

  18.Krikorian, M. K. (1977). Armenians in the service of the Ottoman Empire, 1860-1908. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

  19.Ibid.

  20.Hartunian, A. (1968). Neither to laugh nor to weep. Boston: Beacon Press, pp. 18 & 20.

  21.Miller, Ottoman Empire, p. 479.

  22.Quoted in Boyajian, D. H. (1972). Armenia: The forgotten genocide. Westwood: Educational Book Crafters, p. 50.

  23.For a discussion of this position and an argument against it see:

  Melson, R. (1986). Provocation or nationalism: A critical inquiry into the Armenian genocide of 1915. In R. G. Hovannisian (Ed.), The Armenian genocide: A perspective. New Brunswick, N. J.: Transaction Books.

  24.Miller, Ottoman Empire, pp. 428-30.

  25.Sarkisian, E. K., & Sahakian, R. G. (1965). Vital issues in modern Armenian history. West Concord, Mass.: Concord Press.

  26.Miller, Ottoman Empire.

  27.Ramsauer, Young Turks, pp. 40-42.

  28.Ibid., pp. 64-70.

  29.Toynbee, Treatment of the Armenians, p. 81.

  30.Trumpener, U. (1968). Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914-1918. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  31.Bedrossyan, M. D. (1983). The first genocide of the twentieth century: The perpetrators and the victims. Voskedar Publishing Co.

  Boyajian, Armenia.

  Melson, Provocation or nationalism.

  32.Missakian, J. (1950). A searchlight on the Armenian question (1878-1950). Boston: Haisenik Publishing Co.

  33.Gurun, K. (1985). The Armenian file: The myth of innocence exposed. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

  34.McCarthy, Muslims and minorities, pp. 118-19.

  Emin, A. (1930). Turkey in the World War. New Haven: Yale University Press.

  35.McCarthy, Muslims and minorities, p. 119.

  Allen, W. E. D., & Muratoff, P. (1953). Caucasian battlefields. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  36.Buxton, C. R. (1909). Turkey in revolution. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

  37.Miller, Ottoman Empire, p.
476.

  38.Ibid., pp. 161-3.

  39.Knight, E. F. (1909). The awakening of Turkey: A history of the Turkish revolution. Philadelphia: Lippincott, pp. 278-81.

  40.Ahmad, Young Turks, pp. 162-3.

  41.Lepsius, J. (1919). Deutschland und Armenian. Potsdam: Tempelverlag. Quoted in Boyajian, Armenia, pp. 106-7.

  42.Gokalp, Z. (1968, first published in Ankara in 1920). The principles of Turkism. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

  43.Smith. R. W. (1986). Denial and justification of genocide: The Armenian case and its implications. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Political Science Association, Washington, August 28-31.

  44.Sarkisian and Sahakian, Vital issues, pp. 35-36.

  45.Nazer, J. (1968). The first genocide of the twentieth century: The Armenian massacre. New York: T. and T. Publishing Co.

  46.Morgenthau, H., Sr. (1918). Ambassador Morgenthau’s story. New York: Doubleday.

  47.Dadrian, V. N. (1986). The Naim-Andonian documents of the World War I destruction of Ottoman Armenians: The anatomy of a genocide. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 18, 311-60.

  48.A number of sources quote the memoirs, for example:

  Sarkisian and Sahakian, Vital issues.

  Bedrossyan, First genocide.

  Nazer, Armenian massacre.

  49.See Sarkisian and Sahakian, Vital issues.

  50.Dadrian, The Naim-Andonian documents, pp. 340-1.

  51.Ibid.

  52.Ibid., pp. 71-72.

  53.Quoted in Missakian, A searchlight, pp. 44-45.

  54.Lepsius, J. (Ed.). (1919). Deutschland und Armenien, 1914-1918. Potsdom: Der Tempelverlag.

  Quoted in Boyajian, Armenia.

  55.Gladstone, W. E. (1876). Bulgarian horrors and the question of the East. London, J. Murray Press, p. 38.

  56.Boyajian, Armenia.

  57.Quoted in Bedrossyan, First genocide, p. 132.

  58.Ibid., p. 130.

  59.Miller, Ottoman Empire, p. 538.

  60.Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire.

  61.Ibid., p. 214.

  62.New York Herald Tribune, quoted in Bedrossyan, First genocide, p. 131.

  63.Ibid., p. 131.

  64.According to the Archives of the Nuremberg Proceedings, this statement was made by Hitler at a meeting of SS units at Obersalzberg, on August 22, 1939, instructing them “to kill, without pity, men, women and children” in their march against Poland. See:

  Bedrossyan, First genocide, pp. 136 & 459.

  Lochner, L. (1942). What about the Germans. New York.

  65.Smith, Denial and justification.

  Chapter 13

  1.Osborne, M. E. (1969). The French presence in Cochinchina and Cambodia: Rule and response (1859-1905). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

  2.Etcheson, C. (1984). The rise and demise of democratic Kampuchea. Boulder: Westview Press.

  3.Kiernan, B., & Boua, C. (Eds.). (1982). Peasants and politics in Kampuchea, 1942-1981. New York: M. E. Sharpe, p. 7.

  4.Vickery, M. (1984). Cambodia: 1975-1982. Boston: South End Press.

  5.For tax collecting, see:

  Etcheson, Rise and demise, p. 70.

  Ponchaud, F. (1978). Cambodia: Year Zero. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

  6.Etcheson, Rise and demise, p. 71.

  7.Ibid.

  8.Vickery, Cambodia.

  9.For example, by Henry Kissinger, as noted in:

  Shawcross, W. (1979). Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the destruction of Cambodia. New York: Simon & Schuster.

  10.Becker, E. (1986). When the war was over: The voices of Cambodia’s revolution and its people. New York: Simon & Schuster.

  11.Sihanouk, Prince Norodom (1980). War and hope: The case for Cambodia. New York: Pantheon Books.

  12.Barron, J., & Paul, A. (1977). Murder of a gentle land: The untold story of communist genocide in Cambodia. New York: Readers Digest Press.

  13.Ibid., as well as other sources.

  14.Becker, When the war was over.

  15.Etcheson, Rise and demise.

  16.Vickery, Cambodia., p. 139.

  17.Vickery, Cambodia.

  18.Hildebrand, G., and Porter, G. (1976). Cambodia: Starvation and revolution. New York: Monthly Review Press.

  19.Vickery, Cambodia.

  20.Ibid., p. 26.

  21.Barron and Paul, Murder of a gentle land.

  22.Chandler, D. P. (1983). A history of Cambodia. Boulder: Westview Press.

  23.Osborne, French presence.

  24.Vickery, Cambodia, Chap. 1.

  25.Burchett, W. (1981) The China, Cambodia, Vietnam triangle. Chicago: Vanguard Books, p. 122.

  Quoted in Vickery, Cambodia, p. 17.

  26.Osborne, French presence.

  27.Chandler, A history, p. 59.

  28.Ibid., p. 81.

  29.Myrdal, J., & Kessle, G. (1971). Angkor: An essay on art and imperialism. London: Chatto & Windus.

  30.Osborne, French presence, p. 284.

  31.Ibid., p. 19.

  32.Ibid.

  Becker, When the war was over.

  33.Becker, When the war was over, p. 54.

  34.Kamm, H. (September 1987). A broken country. New York Times Magazine, p. 110.

  35.Becker, When the war was over.

  36.Ibid., p. 84.

  37.Bun Chan Mol. (1973). Charit Khmer. Phnom Penh.

  38.Chandler, D. (1973). Cambodia before the French. Ph. D. diss., University of Michigan.

  Vickery, Cambodia, p. 7.

  39.Cited in Chomsky, N., & Hermann E. S. (1979). After the cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the reconstruction of imperial ideology. Boston: South End Press.

  40.Kiernan, B. (1982). The Samlaut rebellion, 1967-68. In Kiernan and Boua, Peasants and politics, p. 195.

  41.Ibid.

  42.Cattell, D. C. (1956). Communism and the Spanish Civil War. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, p. 2.

  Vickery, Cambodia, p. 282.

  43.Vickery, Cambodia, p. 284.

  44.Chandler, A history.

  45.Etcheson, Rise and demise.

  46.Vickery, Cambodia.

  47.Ibid. p. 281.

  48.Meisner, M. J. Mao’s China: A history of the People’s Republic, pp. 205, 212. Quoted in Vickery, Cambodia, p. 273.

  49.Burchett, Triangle, p. 64.

  Quoted in Vickery, Cambodia, pp. 272-3.

  50.Hou Youn. (1955). The Cambodian peasants and their prospects for modernization. Part of it reprinted in Kiernan and Boua, Peasants and politics.

  51.Hou Youn. (1964). Solving rural problems. Described in Etcheson, Rise and demise, p. 51.

  52.Khieu Samphan’s 1959 thesis is described in Hildebrand and Porter, Cambodia.

  53.Etcheson, Rise and demise.

  54.Ibid.

  55.Ibid., p. 101.

  56.In Becker, When the war was over, p. 155.

  57.Ibid., p. 155.

  58.Barron and Paul, Murder of a gentle land.

  59.Ibid., p. 44.

  60.Ibid.

  61.Ibid., pp. 46-47.

  62.Becker, When the war was over, p. 71.

  63.Sihanouk, War and hope.

  64.Becker, When the war was over, p. 21.

  Chapter 14

  1.Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. General Secretariat. (April 11, 1980). Report on the situation of human rights in Argentina. Washington, D. C.: Organization of American States, p. 14.

  2.Hodges, D. C. (1976). Argentina, 1943-1976: The national revolution and resistance. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

  3.Bernard, J. P., et al. (1973). Guide to the political parties of South America. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin Books, p. 35.

  4.Dworkin, R. (1986). Introduction. In Nunca Mas: The Report of the Argentine National Commission on the disappeared. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux.

  5.San Martin, S. (1983). El poder militar y la nación (The military power and the nation). Buenos Aires: Editorial Troquel S. A.

  6.Potash, R. A. (19
69, 1980). The army and politics in Argentina. Vol. 1, 1928-1945; vol. 2, 1945-1962. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. Potash’s two-volume history of the military in Argentina has been highly regarded both by the military rulers of Argentina and by the present civilian government.

  7.Ibid., vol. 2.

  8.Ibid., vol. 2, p. 298.

  9.Caviedes, C. (1984). The Southern Cone: Realities of the authoritarian state in South America. Totowa, N. J.: Rowman & Allenheld.

  Commission on Human Rights, Report on the situation.

  10.Bernard et al., Guide.

  11.Potash, R. A. (1970). Argentina. In L. N. McAlister et al. (Eds.), The military in Latin American sociopolitical evolution. Washington, D. C: Center for Research in Social Systems.

  12.Bernard et al., Guide, pp. 103-4, 105.

  13.Hodges, Argentina, p. 18.

  14.Ibid., p. 14.

  15.Secretaria de Guerra (Secretary of War). (1966). Operaciones de Asuntos Civiles (Operation of Civil Affairs). RC-19-1 Publico. Institute geogr&fico militar. Republic Argentina.

  16.Potash, Argentina.

  17.Weil, T. E. et al. (1974). Area handbook for Argentina. 2d ed. DA pamphlet 550-73. Prepared by Foreign Area Studies of the American University. Washington, D. C: U.S. Government Printing Office.

  18.Potash, Argentina, p. 98.

  19.Ibid.

  20.San Martin, El poder militar.

  21.Weil et al., Area handbook.

  22.Caviedes, Southern Cone.

  23.Ibid.

  Keegan, J. (1983). World armies. 2d ed. London: Macmillan.

  24.Terrorism in Argentina. (January 7, 1980). República Argentina. Poder ejecutivo nacional.

  25.Crawley, E. (1984). A house divided: Argentina 1880-1980. New York: St. Martin’s Press, p. 423.

  26.Terrorism in Argentina, p. 398.

  27.Crawley, A house divided, p. 423.

  28.Zalaquett, J. (1985). New Republic, issue 3700. Washington, D.C.

  29.Nunca Mas, p. 363.

  30.Cox, R. (December 8, 1983). The second death of Per6n. New York Review of Books.

  31.Caviedes, Southern Cone.

  32.Ibid.

  33.Keegan, World armies.

  34.Potash, R. A. (1977). The impact of professionalism on the twentieth century Argentine military. Program in Latin American Studies Publication. Occasional Papers no. 3. International Area Studies Programs. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, p. 15.

  35.San Martin, El poder militar.

  36.Caviedes, Southern Cone.

  37.Nunca Mas, pp. 254-63.

  38.I refer to decrees 261, 2770, and 2771. One of them appears in Terrorism in Argentina. I am grateful to Robert Potash, who showed me copies of the decrees and translated them for me.