Sarama and Her Children

by Bibek Debroy

  Shani

  Vulture

  Shashthi

  Cat

  Shitala

  Donkey

  Siva

  Bull

  Varuna

  Fish

  Vayu

  Deer

  Vishnu

  Suparna, Garuda

  Vishvakarma

  Elephant

  Yama

  Buffalo

  Yamuna

  Tortoise

  Each god or goddess is associated with an animal or bird that carries the god or the goddess. This is the vahana or carrier. We have listed out the vahanas of various gods and goddesses in the table. The table needs an explanation though. The vahana for a particular god or goddess has sometimes evolved over time and has not always been constant. For that matter, gods and goddesses have also evolved over time. This is reflected in the table, and the collation therefore sometimes differs with popular perceptions about which animal or bird carries a particular god or goddess. There is no dog in the table. The argument that only respected animals figure as vahanas will not wash. After all, we have rats, cats and donkeys. If we can have these, why not dogs?

  And this takes us to two specific persons, Dattatreya and Bhairava. Let us take Dattatreya first. When twenty-four avataras of Vishnu are listed, the sage Dattatreya figures as sixth.55 The core Dattatreya story is found in the Markandeya Purana.56 The sage Atri’s wife was Anasuya. Because of Anasuya’s prayers, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were born as her sons. Brahma was born as Chandra, Shiva was born as Durvasha and Vishnu was born as Dattatreya. The Dattatreya story is about how the sage rescued the gods from the demons and about how he blessed Karttaviryarjuna. But in passing, the sage was followed by disciples all the time and did not like this one bit. Dattatreya therefore lived as an outcaste, drinking away, and hoping the disciples would go away because of this. There is thus a clear association of Dattatreya with the notion of a mendicant and an outcaste. However, Dattatreya was a learned sage, as befits an incarnation of Vishnu. The four vedas followed the sage around, assuming the form of four dogs. A famous Raja Ravi Verma painting has such a depiction of Dattatreya. But Dattatreya was so much of an outcaste that he was more like an incarnation of Shiva than of Vishnu. Besides, the twenty-four avataras list never became as popular as the ten avataras one. Barring some localized variations, such as in Maharashtra or Karnataka, how many people have heard of Dattatreya?

  Dogs are not generally associated with gods and goddesses. The only exception is a minor deity named Kshetrapala, who may have been a manifestation of Shiva. The Matysa Purana (261/51–52) describes different deities and also describes Kshetrapala. Kshetrapala is described as surrounded (nishevitah) by dogs and jackals. Bhairava was created by Shiva from his own brow and Bhairava chopped off Brahma’s fifth head.57 Bhairava is sometimes created by Shiva and sometimes a manifestation of Shiva. Adi Shankaracharya’s Kalabhairava stotra is a hymn to Bhairava identified as Shiva, and many Bhairava temples are thus Shiva temples. Sticking to the puranas, Kshetrapala is synonymous with Bhairava. To help the gods, Shiva created sixty-four kshetrapalas from his mouth and placed them in charge of sixty-four kshetras or sectors.58 Twenty-five were to rule in heaven, twenty-five in hell and fourteen on earth. The fourteen who would rule on earth were Hunkara, Bhayavaha, Mahalaksha, Jvalaksha, Ekavriksha, Karalavadana, Ghantarava, Padmakhanja, Duraroha, Kurara, Pravaha, Manibhadra, Rasadhakshya and Kotana. Before every sacrifice, offerings would have to be made to these kshetrapalas. Otherwise, the sacrifice would fail. These kshetrapalas would live in cremation grounds. And most importantly, they would ride on dogs (shva cha vahanam).

  In the tantra tradition, there are eight main bhairavas. They are Asita, Ruru, Chanda, Krodha, Unmatta, Kapala, Bhishana and Sanhara.59 Each of these leads eight other bhairavas and there are thus sixty-four bhairavas in all. Each of the sixty-four bhairavas is associated with a yogini. The most common bhairavas worshipped (not always in the list of sixty-four)60 are Aghora, Pashupata, Virupaksha, Nilakantha, Virabhadra, Kalabhairava and Vatukabhairava. Of these, Vatukabhairava is especially associated with dogs and also rides on dogs. Such statues however date to around the ninth century, not earlier. The Vatukabhairava strota of the Vishvasaratantra also identifies Kshetrapala with Bhairava.61 And this strota describes Vatuk Bhairava as sarameya samanvitam, surrounded by dogs. In the Hoysaleshvara temple in Halebid, there is a Bhairava statue trampling a richly dressed corpse and there is a dog, eating away the corpse’s leg. Later paintings of Virabhadra, such as from Karnataka in the nineteenth century, also show dogs accompanying Virabhadra.62

  There is of course a difference between being surrounded by dogs and being mounted on a dog. Bhairava statues mounted on dogs may be of more recent vintage. Consider the following. ‘Bhairava holds a ghastly head and a cup of blood; two dogs attend, in apparent expectation of sharing in the horrid banquet … Sonnerat notices this deity as honoured in the Carnatic … but said to be mounted on a dog, a position that I never saw him in.’63 However, these days, there are several Bhairava or Vatuk Bhairava statues mounted on dogs.

  Statues of all eight main bhairavas can be found in Varanasi.64 First, the Asita or Asitanga (black-limbed) statue can be found in the Vriddhakaleshvara temple. Second, the Ruru (dog) statue can be found at Hanuman Ghat. Third, the Chanda (fierce) statue can be found in the Durga temple at Durga Kand. Fourth, the Krodha or Krodhana (wrathful) statue can be found in the Kamakshi Devi temple. Fifth, the Unmatta (wild) statue can be found on Panchakroshi Road between Kardameshavara and Bhimachandi. Sixth, the Kapala or Kapali (skull-bearer) statue can be found at Lat Bhairava. Seventh, the Bhishana (horrific) or Bhuta statue can be found southwest of Maidagin, at a place called Bhuta Bhairava. Eighth, the Sanhara (destructive) statue can be found near Patan Darvaza.

  And the Kala Bhairava statue proper clearly shows Bhairava riding on a dog. ‘Kala Bhairava’s temple today is one of the most interesting in all Banaras. Entering from the street, through a door guarded by Bhairava’s mount, the dog, one finds a fine courtyard, in the centre of which is the main shrine of Bhairava—a small temple, with a pillared and diamond-tiled porch on which to stand for darshana. Only the silver face of Kala Bhairava, garlanded with flowers, is visible through the doorway of the inner sanctum. The rest of Bhairava’s image—said to be pot-bellied, seated upon a dog, holding a trident—is hidden behind a cloth drapery.’65 For the sake of completeness, one should mention a variant of Bhairava in Khandoba (also known as Mallari, Malhari, Mailar, Martand, Ravalkanth and Yelkoti Mahadev), worshipped in Maharashtra and Karnataka. Khand means a sword and Khandoba is a warrior-king. Khandoba’s temple in Jejuri in Maharashtra is famous and goes back to the fourteenth century. Khandoba rides a white horse and his hunting dog runs alongside. From Rajasthan in the eighteenth century, there are paintings of Gorakhanath, as Gorakha Kshetrapalji, accompanied by a dog.66 Not only was Gorakhanath’s active life that of a Shaivaite, he had earlier associations with Buddhism.

  Bhairava worship figures prominently in Nepal, and dogs figure prominently as vahanas of Bhairava. This is especially evident during Diwali celebrations, when the second day is ‘kukkur tihar’, with food being cooked for dogs and dogs being worshipped with aarti, garlands and tilak on their foreheads. Similar worship and feeding of dogs characterizes Bhairava Ashtami, the eighth day in krishnapaksha of the month Margashirsha. This is when Bhairava is worshipped, and so is his vahana, the dog. There are also parts of India where Bhairava Jayanti is similarly observed, on the same day, and dogs are offered special food like milk, curds and sweets. Also in Nepal, there is the Buddhist god Yamantaka, again with an association with dogs.

  Without getting into a discussion of the evolution of Hindu religion, it is obvious that the Shiva–Shakti tradition was not originally part and parcel of one definition of Hinduism. The Shiva–Shakti tradition predated vedic and post-vedic Hinduism and was assimilated later, or if one so prefers, assimilated vedic Hinduism into it. Cremation gr
ounds, outcastes, tantra, are integral parts of the Shiva–Shakti tradition. And so are dogs. Whenever pre-Aryan or tribal ingredients have been assimilated into Hinduism, dogs have been accepted. Take the Koorankali tribal dance from Kerala. In this dance, one man enacts the role of a wild bear, while another enacts the role of a hunting dog. For that matter, there are two yoga asanas named after dogs. In urdhva mukha svanasana one copies the pose of a dog stretching itself with its head up in the air. And in adho mukha svanasana, one again copies a dog stretching itself, but this time, the dog’s head and forelegs are down rather than up. However, there is no correspondence between the dog and music. In music, shadaja is identified with the peacock, rishabha with the bull, gandhara with the goat, madhyama with the sarus crane, panchama with the cuckoo, dhaivata with the horse and nishada with the elephant.

  The major vedic gods were Varuna, Mitra, Agni and Pusha, and they, together with Indra and Rudra, went into a decline and Vishnu gained ascendance, until Shiva was identified with Rudra, and Rudra was rehabilitated. Barring the Dattatreya incident, dogs are relatively taboo in the Vishnu and caste Hindu tradition, and rarely find a mention, except in a negative sense, in puranas identified with Vishnu. However, they do figure in puranas identified with Shiva. Compared to depictions of other animals, the dog rarely figures in Indian art or sculpture. A pair of wolves, or dogs, shown on the pillar of a cave in Pital Khora is one notable exception.67 This rare depiction of dogs is also equally true of the pata paintings of Orissa, or Kalighat or Madhubani paintings. Shiva, cremation grounds and even tantra, often go hand in hand. And in this kind of tradition, clearly, dogs were accepted. Where did tantra originate? At first, around the fourth century CE, perhaps in Kashmir and Tibet, unless one prefers to drag the roots back even further, and subsequently, in the medieval period, in places like Assam, Orissa, Bengal and Nepal. In all these regions, dogs are generally accepted. We have already mentioned Nepal. Tibet of course brings in the Buddhist influence. But that apart, dogs are regarded as a superior animal in Tibet, with a nature that resembles that of humans. There is even a proverb that happiness is accompanied on ones’ travels by a dog. Look at the number of dog breeds that originate in Tibet.

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  Niti Shashtras

  The counterpart to Aesop’s fables in India is the Panchatantra. The Panchatantra is a collection of animal fables, authored by Vishnusharma between 300 BCE and 500 CE, although in all probability, the Vishnusharma version was a rescension or version of the Panchatantra rather than the original itself. Because they were meant to teach what was right and what was wrong, the Panchatantra belongs to the corpus of niti shashtras. This corpus is thus about ethics. Through an Arabic version, the Panchatantra stories entered European literature. Sometimes, they are referred to as the fables of Bidpai. There is no one named Bidpai, unless that is a corruption of Vidyapati. With a Sanskrit root, Bidpai probably simply means wise man. Such as Vishnusharma. Clearly, there was a strong Buddhist influence on the Panchatantra.

  As the name suggests, there are five (pancha) strands (tantra) to the Panchatantra stories, five core segments. These are mitrabheda (conflict among friends), mitrasampratti (making friends), kakoulukiya (crows and owls), labdhapranasham (loss of what is gained), and aparikshitakarakam (untested action). The core story of the first tantra concerns a bull and a lion. The core story of the second tantra concerns crows, tortoises, deer and mice. The core of the third tantra concerns crows and owls. The core of the fourth tantra concerns monkeys and crocodiles (makara). And the core of the fifth tantra concerns a brahmani and a mongoose. But around this core of five stories, there are seventy-eight sub-stories. It is difficult to count the number of stories in the Panchatantra because one story meanders into another.

  In the entire first tantra, dogs occur only once. Instead, the first tantra is littered with lions, cows, monkeys, jackals, goats, crows, cobras, crabs, herons, fish, rabbits, fleas, bugs, camels, sparrows, woodpeckers, flies, frogs, mongooses and wolves, a pattern not very different from the rest of the Panchatantra. Dogs only figure in passing in sub-story no. 10, a fairly famous story about a jackal named Chandarava.

  Chandarava, the jackal

  In a certain forest region, there lived a jackal named Chandarava (the one with a terrible roar). Once, overcome by hunger, tongue lolling, he entered a different town (or another town—although the first sentence mentions a forest region). The dogs dwelling in the town, on seeing Chandarava, came running from all directions, and began to snap at him with their sharp, pointed teeth. Out of fear for his life, Chandarava turned back and entered the house of a washerman. In the house stood a huge tub full of blue dye. Attacked by dogs, Chandarava fell into the tub.

  When he came out, he was blue-coloured. The dogs, not knowing him to be a jackal, went away. Chandarava departed towards the jungle

  On beholding the strange entity with the same dark glow as poison in the neck of Shiva, all the lions, tigers, jackals and other inhabitants of the forest were scared and escaped in all directions. And remarked, ‘It is not known what he can do and how strong he is. So we should go further away. It has been said, Wise men who want their own good do not trust someone whose activities, family background and powers they do not know about.’

  Chandarava, knowing the other animals to be frightened and disturbed, said, ‘O animals! Are you going about in fear on seeing me? Do not fear. Today, Brahma, creating me, told me that there is no king among the animals. So he created me and named me Kakuddruma. I have been appointed the lord of all animals. That is the reason Brahma has sent me down to earth, to look after all the animals. That is why I am here. All the animals will be under my protection. I am king Kakuddruma—ruler of the three worlds.’

  Hearing this, the animals—with the lion and the tiger at the forefront—said, ‘O lord! O king! Command us!’ They stood around Chandarava. The lion was appointed minister. The tiger was appointed the guard. The leopard was given the responsibility of serving betel leaf. The jackal was appointed gatekeeper. But foxes and their relatives were kicked out. Chandarava did not even speak to them.

  With his royal rule proceeding like this, the lions and others, on killing deer and other animals, brought these as offerings to Chandarava. And Chandarava, in the manner of a king, divided these among his subjects. Time passed.

  One day, as Chandarava was coming to the court, he heard the sound of a band of foxes howling away in the distance. On hearing that sound, Chandarava was thrilled and his eyes filled with tears of joy. Getting up, he began to howl in a high pitch. At this, the lions realized this was a fox. Momentarily, they hung their faces down in shame, at having been ordered about by a small fox. Then they decided to kill Chandarava. Chandarava tried to run away, but failed. He was torn to pieces and killed.

  In the Chandarava story, dogs only play a peripheral role. However, the implication is that towns were populated by packs of stray dogs.

  The second tantra is also littered with crows and other birds, rats, tortoises, deer, snakes, cats, cows and jackals. Dogs (more accurately a single dog) figure incidentally in story no. 2.

  In a certain place, there lived a brahmana. One day, the brahmana told his wife, ‘O brahmani! Tomorrow is an auspicious day and I will go to another village in search of alms. You should offer a little food to a brahmana and the deity Surya. After all, the sun begins its southward motion tomorrow.’

  On hearing this, the brahmana’s wife said in angry words, ‘Where will the food come from—to one struck by poverty such as you? Aren’t you ashamed to speak like this? And I too, have never got a bit of happiness ever since I was married to you. Neither the taste of sweets, nor ornaments for my neck, hands and feet.’

  Hearing this, the brahmana responded softly, ‘O wife! It is not befitting for you to speak like this. Why should one not give half of even a handful to one who asks for it? Who ever gets wealth according to his or her desire? The results that the rich achieve by making lots of donations, the poor man gets by donating
one cowrie. Even if he is a humble man, a generous person is to be served—not a miserly person, however great his riches. The pleasant water within a well is that which is pleasant for people—not the vast ocean. The lordly elephant, although weakened by constant intoxicating secretions, is praiseworthy. The donkey that gives away nothing—even if fat—is to be blamed. Knowing this, even when overwhelmed by poverty, the minutest amount should be donated at the appropriate time and to the appropriate person. It is said that: Neither leave thirsty, nor be over-thirsty. The one who is over-thirsty grows a shikha on the head.’

  ‘How is that?’ the brahmana’s wife asked and this leads to the following story.

  In a certain forest region, there was a hunter belonging to the pulinda tribe. He went to the forest to do the sinful act of hunting. There he came upon a huge boar—dark and vast like a mountain. On seeing it, the hunter stretched his bow to his ear and shot a sharp arrow that hit the boar. The boar too, wounded and angry, tore up the stomach of the hunter with sharp, curved tusks shaped like the new moon. The hunter fell on the ground, lifeless. Having killed the hunter, the boar too died of his wound from the arrow. At this juncture, there came a jackal whose was close to death because of hunger. As he saw the hunter and the boar, the jackal thought happily, ‘Aha! I am in luck! That is why I have such an unexpected feast spread before me. As the wise say, even though no effort has been made, the results of another birth, good or bad, comes to a man—appropriately sent by fate. One enjoys the fruits of one’s work, good or bad, and performed wherever, at whatever time, and at whatever age. So I will eat such that I can continue living for many more days. Therefore, I will now eat only the stretch of entrails that form the string of the bow. It has been said, the wise should enjoy the wealth that they have earned by themselves slowly—like an elixir or syrup—not carelessly.’