This victory demonstrated once and for all, if it still needed demonstrating, that Greek mercenaries were superior in quality to both citizen soldiers and mercenaries from other regions. The Carthaginians learned this lesson well and resolved to begin to hire Greek mercenaries alongside their more traditional mercenaries from Spain and North Africa. They also decided not to risk any more citizen soldiers in overseas wars, but to allow their mercenary troops to conduct all of their battles.89 By the spring of the following year, 338, the Carthaginian army did indeed contain a detachment of Greek mercenaries. The speed with which they were hired and incorporated into the Carthaginian land forces speaks to the ubiquity of Greek mercenary soldiers in the fourth century.
Timoleon left the mercenary army under the command of his subordinates to continue the plunder of Carthaginian-controlled territory whilst he returned to Syracuse. Once he arrived, he immediately dismissed the 1,000 mercenaries who had deserted him, along with the instigator Thrasius. These mercenaries stayed together as a group and sailed to Italy, where they pillaged the territory of the Bruttians. After some initial success, they were slaughtered by a detachment of Bruttian soldiers, however.90
After he had settled matters with Thrasius and his mercenaries, Timoleon set about removing tyrants from the cities of Sicily. We hear very little of his actual activities; Diodorus only provides us with a list of those removed from power. The main tyrant of interest is Hicetas. He had decided to once more side with the Carthaginians, although we are not told why the change of heart. Timoleon approached Leontini and apparently offered some form of bribe (the details are unknown) to Hicetas’ mercenaries, who readily betrayed him and handed him over, along with his family and senior commander, to the Syracusans.91
After this, he concluded his war with Hicetas and put him to death, and then attacked the Campanians in Aetna and wiped them out. Likewise he overbore Nicodemus, tyrant of Centuripae, and ousted him from that city; and putting an end to the tyranny of Apolloniades in Agyrium he gave Syracusan citizenship to its freed inhabitants. In a word, all of the tyrants throughout the island were uprooted and the cities were set free and taken into his alliance.
After the death of Timoleon in 337, we know little of the following twenty years of history in Sicily, and some have (probably rightly) suggested that this was a relatively quiet period of recovery after the deprivations of a series of major wars, both between the Greek states of Sicily and against repeated Carthaginian invasions.92
Notes
Introduction
1 Griffith, 1935, p. 1.
2 Parke, 1933, p. 1ff.
3 Aymard, 1967, p. 487.
4 Plutarch, Themistocles 10.3; Trundle, 2004, p. 22.
5 Trundle, 2004, p. 22.
6 Cited in Trundle, 2004, p. 22.
7 Krasilnikoff, 1992, p. 27; McKechnie, 1989, p. 92; Griffith, 1935, pp. 310–11; Trundle, 2004, p. 22; Aristotle, Politics 1256a–b.
8 Trundle, 2004, p. 23.
9 Trundle, 2004, p. 10.
10 Xenophon, Hellenica 4.5.11-18; cf. Trundle, 2004, p. 15.
11 Van Wees, 2004, pp. 71–6 on epikouroi.
12 Cf. Herodotus 2.152–4.
13 Herodotus 1.61.3–4; Aristotle, Ath. Pol. 15.1–3.
14 Herodotus 5.55, 65, 71, 91; 6.35, 102, 103, 107, 123; 7.6. Diodorus 11.48.3; 53.2, 67.5. Trundle, 2004, pp. 28–9; Hunt, 2007, p. 141 notes that this use for internal stability ran from the Archaic period to the fourth century.
15 Plutarch, Agesilaus 22.2. For general works on peltasts see Best, 1969; Hunt, 2007, pp. 119–22; Webber, 2011 on Thracians generally.
16 Thucydides 1.115.4; 2.33.1; 70.3; 79.3; 3.18.1; 34.2; 73.1; 85.3; 109.2; 6.46.2; 129.3; 130.3; 131.3; 7.43.1; 57.3; 57.9; 57.11; 58.3; 8.25.2; 28.4; 38.3. Trundle, 2004, p. 30.
17 Plato, Laws 630a–b; the first sentence being a quotation of Theognis 77–8.
18 Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 3.8.9.
19 Diodorus 19.40–3.9; Plutarch Eumenes 17–17; cf. Trundle, 2004, p. 35.
20 Diodorus 14.19.1–34.3 (Cyrus); 14.7.5—8, 14.41.4–96.4 (Dionysius).
Chapter 1
1 This chapter relies heavily on the excellent works of Pritchett, 1974 and Trundle, 2004.
2 Trundle, 2004, pp. 82–3.
3 Diodorus 16.36.1; 16.56.5.
4 Marinovic, 1988, pp. 270–4 cited in Trundle, 2004, pp. 83–4.
5 Examples of Alexander’s garrisons in Greece include: Corinth (Polybius 38.3.3), Sicyon (Demosthenes 17.16) and in Ambracia (Diodorus 17.3.3). Examples of garrisons in Persia are almost too numerous to mention.
6 Krasilnikoff, 1993, p. 78.
7 For the Syracusans see Plutarch, Dion 31. For Cyrus see Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.13. The context of the quote being that the mercenaries had just found out that the target was the Great King himself; they had not been told their real target before this point.
8 Diodorus 16.64.6; Curtius 5.1.45.
9 Diodorus 14.78.2–3.
10 van Wees, 2004, pp. 26–8; Trundle, 2004, pp. 99–103; Hanson 1998, pp. 185–94; Sage, 1996, pp. 121–7; Krasilnikoff, 1992, pp. 22–36; Pritchett, 1991, pp. 68–203; Griffith, 1935, p. 273; Parke, 1933, p. 233.
11 Sage, 1996, p. 121.
12 Sage, 1996, p. 127 on treaties between Hierapytnia and the cities of Priansus and Rhodes.
13 Diodorus 17.14.4; Green, 1991, p. 149.
14 Xenophon, Anabasis 5.3.6–9.
15 Trundle, 2004, p. 99 for this section.
16 Isaeus 4.
17 Aeneas Tacticus 16.4–8 (both quotes).
18 Trundle, 2004, p. 100.
19 Sage, 1996, p. 125.
20 Xenophon, Anabasis 7.8.9-24; cf. Trundle, 2004, p. 100.
21 Xenophon Anabasis 5.6.23. The Cyzicicene mentioned being a gold coin from a city in the Propontis region.
22 Trundle, 2004, p. 90.
23 For Callicratidas, see Xenophon, Hellenica 1.6.12–13; for the quotation, see Xenophon, Anabasis 6.4.8.
24 Diodorus 15.14.4.
25 Diodorus 15.15.2.
26 Trundle, 2004, p. 91.
27 Parke, 1933, pp. 231–3; Griffith, 1935, p. 273, p. 298, generally agrees with Parke’s wage deflation argument.
28 This is the general argument of Loomis, 1998, pp. 47–8; Krasilnikoff, 1993, p. 95; McKechnie, 1989, p. 89; Miller, 1984, p. 155.
29 Contra Parke, 1933, pp. 231–2, who argues that there was a shortage of available mercenaries as wages fell in the fourth century.
30 Trundle, 2004, p. 92.
31 As argued by Griffith, 1935, pp. 294–7; contra Loomis, 1998, p. 60, who notes this as speculation.
32 Thucydides 3.17.4 (quote); 6.8.1; 6.31.3; 7.27.2; 8.29; 8.45.2; 8.101.
33 Rhodes, 1981, p. 306.
34 Aristophanes, Acharnians 159; Wasps 682–5, 1188–9; cf. Trundle, 2004, p. 91; Griffiths, 1935, p. 295. Athenian rates of pay during the Peloponnesian War are very controversial. For a recent discussion, see Hornblower, 2010, on 3.17.4; 6.31.3; 8.45.2.
35 Demosthenes 4.28–9.
36 Plutarch, Alcibiades 35.4; cf. Rhodes, 2011, p. 88.
37 Xenophon, Hellenica 1.5.4–7.
38 Trundle, 2004, p. 93.
39 Diodorus 14.44.2; cf. 14.8.6; 14.62.1; 15.47.7; 15.91.4.
40 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.21; cf. Trundle, 2004, p. 93.
41 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.19.
42 Trundle, 2004, pp. 94–5, for an excellent analysis of both sources.
43 Xenophon, Hellenica 5.2.21.
44 Rhodes, 1981, p. 306.
45 Demosthenes 4.28. The actual date is still debated.
46 Mckechnie, 1989, p. 98, believes this passage has no value, whilst Parke, 1933, p. 232, believes it has little value, although still uses it to support his view of very low mercenary wages during the fourth century.
47 Diodorus 16.25.1 (355/4); 16.30.1 (354/3); 16.31.1 (353/2).
48 Trundle, 2004, p. 96.
49 Parke, 1933, p. 233.
50 English, 2011.
5
1 English, 2009a, p. 63.
Chapter 2
1 A very controversial subject well beyond the scope of this book.
2 For agriculture and food supply in the Greek world, Murray, 1980, pp. 42–5; 191f; cf. Garnsey, 1988.
3 Herodotus 2.52.3.
4 Herodotus 2.52.4. Note that Ionians and Carians were Greeks from Asia Minor, not the mainland.
5 Parke, 1933, p. 4.
6 Herodotus 2.54.1.
7 Parke, 1933, p. 5.
8 Herodotus 2.163.1.
9 Herodotus 2.154.3.
10 Herodotus 3.4.2.
11 Herodotus 3.4.3.
12 Herodotus 3.9.
13 Herodotus 3.11.
14 Yalichev, 1997, p. 60.
15 Aristotle, Politics 1313b.
16 Parke, 1933, p. 7; this section relies heavily upon Parke.
17 Aristotle, Politics 1305a 24; cf. Parke, 1933, p. 8.
18 Aristotle, Politics 1315b 28; cf. Parke, 1933, p. 8.
19 Aristotle, Politics 1315b 11; cf. Parke, 1933, p. 8.
20 Pisistratus was ousted from power in Athens c.555 and was in exile for between three and six years. When he returned he ruled for between one and six years before being exiled again. After ten years in exile he returned again and this time he held power until his death in 527 BC.
21 Herodotus 1 61.2–62.1.
22 Polyaenus 5.47. For criticism see Parke, 1933, p. 10.
23 Parke, 1933, p. 10.
24 Herodotus 7.155.1.
25 Herodotus 7.155.2.
26 Herodotus 7.155–156.
27 Herodotus 7.157.
28 Herodotus 7.158.3.
29 Diodorus 11.21.1–22.1.
30 Diodorus 11.22.1.
31 Diodorus 11.48.3.
32 Parke, 1933, p. 12.
33 Diodorus 11.72.1–3.
34 Parke, 1933, pp. 12–13.
35 Yalichev, 1997, p. 86.
36 Yalichev, 1997, p. 86.
37 Herodotus 1.76–77.
38 Burn, 1984, p. 40. It could be argued, however, that these Ionians were fighting as subject allies rather than strictly as mercenaries.
39 Farrokh, 2007, p. 41.
40 Farrokh, 2007, p. 41.
41 Yalichev, 1997, p. 87.
42 Osborne, 1996, p. 319.
43 Best, 1969.
44 Yalichev, 1997, p. 87.
Chapter 3
1 The two most recent discussions of Marathon are: Krentz, 2010 and Billows, 2010.
2 Krentz, 2010, p. 101.
3 Herodotus 7.186.
4 For example: Burn, 1984, pp. 326–32; Lazenby, 1993, pp. 90–6.
5 Bradford, 1993; Lazenby, 1993; Cartledge, 2006.
6 Herodotus 8.26.
7 Lazenby, 1993; Strauss, 2005.
8 Lazenby, 1993.
9 Herodotus 9.28 puts the Greek strength at 110,000 and at 9.32 the Persian strength at 300,000.
10 Lazenby, 1993, p. 244.
11 Lendon, 2007, pp. 499–500.
12 Although the chronology of Plataea and Mycale is disputed.
13 Rhodes, 2010, p. 22 on Eurymedon.
14 Thucydides 1.115.4; cf. Diodorus 12.27.3, who is less positive about these 700 being mercenaries, although it does seem likely.
15 Rhodes, 2010, p. 73.
16 Parke, 1933, p. 15, does not cite finances directly.
17 Gabrielsen, 2007, pp. 265–6 and Delbrück, 1975, pp. 144–8 on the Athenian use of mercenaries.
18 Thucydides 1.60.
19 Thucydides 2.70.
20 Parke, 1933, p. 16.
21 Thucydides 4.80.5.
22 Thucydides 4.81–83.
23 Thucydides 4.84.
24 Thucudides 4.84; for the speech 4.85–87.
25 Thucydides 4.103–104.
26 Thucydides the historian, that is. See 4.104.4.
27 Thucydides 4.105.
28 Thucydides 4.108.
29 Thucydides 4.108. The island in question being Sphacteria, where a number of Spartans had been captured by Athens in 425 BC.
30 Thucydides 4.113.
31 Thucydides 4.117.
32 Thucydides 4.81; 108.
33 Thucydides 6.43; cf. 7.57–8.
34 Thucydides 7.19.4.
35 Parke, 1933, p. 16. Quote from Thucydides 6.24.3.
36 Thucydides 7.27.1–2.
37 Thucydides 8.28.
38 Diodoris 14.33.5; Xenophon, Hellenica 2.4.28; cf. Parke, 1933, p. 19.
39 Xenophon, Hellenica 2.4.43; cf. Parke, 1933, p. 19.
Chapter 4
1 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.1.2.
2 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.11.
3 Parke, 1933, p. 25.
4 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.3.
5 Diodorus 14.19.5. Diodorus also puts the figure at 800 hoplites.
6 Yalichev, 1997, p. 128.
7 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.25 for lochoi of 50 troops; Xenophon, Anabasis 4.7.8 for lochoi of 100 troops.
8 For Cyrus’ route to Cunaxa see Yalichev, 1997, p. 129f.
9 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.6.
10 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.1–2; cf. Yalichev, 1997, p. 129.
11 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.11.
12 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.14–18.
13 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.19.
14 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.20.
15 Because of evident cooperation between the two.
16 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.26.
17 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.1.
18 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.3–6. For the authenticity of ancient speeches see Shrimpton, 1985.
19 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.8.
20 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.9–12.
21 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.15.
22 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.20.
23 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.7.
24 Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.10.
25 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.1–5.
26 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.5.
27 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.11.
28 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.12–13.
29 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.14.
30 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.5.
31 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.14; cf. Barnett, 1963, pp. 1–26.
32 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.15.
33 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.19–20.
34 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.14.
35 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.4–7.
36 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.13.
37 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.18–20.
38 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.24.
39 Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.25–7. Quote is from Xenophon, Anabasis 1.9.1.
40 Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.1–2; cf. Parke, 1933, p. 32.
41 Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.7.
42 Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.27.
43 Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.30. Quote is from Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.31–34.
44 Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.40–42.
45 Yalichev, 1997, p. 137.
46 Xenophon, Anabasis 3.3.1–5.
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