Mothers and Others

by Sarah Blaffer Hrdy

  Sear, Rebecca, R. Mace, and Ian A. McGregor. 2000. Maternal grandmothers improve the nutritional status and survival of children in rural Gambia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 267:461–467.

  Sear, Rebecca, Fiona Steele, Ian A. McGregor, and Ruth Mace. 2002. The effects of kin on child mortality in rural Gambia. Demography 39:43–63.

  Seay, B. 1966. Maternal behavior in primiparous and multiparous rhesus monkeys. Folia Primatologica 4:146–168.

  Seelye, Katherine Q. 2007. Decision to have baby isn’t political, Mary Cheney says. New York Times, February 1, 2007.

  Seger, Jon. 1977. Appendix 3: A numerical method for estimating coefficients of relationship in a langur troop. In The langurs of Abu, by Sarah B. Hrdy, 317–326. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

  Seilstad, M. T., E. Minch, and L. Cavalli-Sforza. 1998. Genetic evidence for a higher female migration rate in humans. Nature Genetics 20:278–280.

  Shaver, P. R., and K. A. Brennan. 1992. Attachment styles and the “Big Five” personality traits: Their connections with each other and with romantic relationship outcomes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18:536–545.

  Sherman, Paul, Eileen Lacey, Hudson Reeve, and Laurent Keller. 1995. Forum: The eusociality continuum. Behavioral Ecology 6:102–108.

  Shostak, M. 1976. A !Kung woman’s memories of childhood. In Kalahari hunter-gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and their neighbors, ed. R. B. Lee and I. DeVore, 246–278. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

  Shur, M. D., R. Palombit, and P. Whitten. 2008. Association between male testosterone and friendship formation with lactating females in wild olive baboons (Papio hamadryas anubis). Abstract. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 46:193.

  Silk, Joan. 1978. Patterns of food sharing among mother and infant chimpanzees at Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Folia Primatologica 29:129–141.

  ———. 1990. Human adoption in evolutionary perspective. Human Nature 1:25–52.

  ———. 1999. Why are infants so attractive to others? The form and function of infant handling in bonnet macaques. Animal Behaviour 57:1021–32.

  ———. 2002. Females, food, family, and friendship. Evolutionary Anthropology 11:85–87.

  ———. 2003. Cooperation without counting: The puzzle of friendship. In The genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation, ed. Peter Hammerstein, 37–54. Dahlem Workshop Reports. Cambridge: MIT Press.

  ———. 2005. Who are more helpful, humans or chimpanzees? Science 311:1248–49.

  ———. 2007. The adaptive value of sociality in mammalian groups. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 362:539–559.

  Silk, Joan B., S. Alberts, and J. Altmann. 2003. Social bonds of female baboons enhance infant survival. Science 302:1231–34.

  Silk, Joan B., Sarah Brosnan, Jennifer Vonk, Joseph Henrich, Daniel Povinelli, Amanda S. Richardson, Susan P. Lambeth, Jenny Mascaro, and Steven J. Schapiro. 2005. Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members. Nature 437:1357–59.

  Singer, Stephen. 2007. Mother cat adopts newborn rottweiler. Boston Globe, February 15, 2007.

  Skinner, G. W. 2004. Grandparental effects on reproductive strategizing: Nobi villagers in early modern Japan. Demographic Research 11(5):112–147.

  Skutch, Alexander F. 1935. Helpers at the nest. Auk 52:257–273.

  Slater, Kathy Y., C. M. Shaffner, and F. Aureli. 2007. Embraces for infant handling in spider monkeys: Evidence for a biological market? Animal Behaviour 74:455–461.

  Smail, Daniel. 2007. On deep history and the brain. Berkeley: University of California Press.

  Small, Meredith. 1990. Promiscuity in barbary macaques (Macaca sylvana). American Journal of Primatology 20:267–282.

  ———. 1998. Our babies, ourselves. New York: Anchor Books.

  Smith, Adam. 1759/1984. The theory of moral sentiments, ed. D. D. Raphael and A. L. Macfie. Indianapolis: Liberty Classics.

  Smith, A. C., E. R. Tirado Herrera, H. M. Buchanan-Smith, and Eckhard W. Heymann. 2001. Multiple breeding females and allo-nursing in a wild group of moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax). Neotropical Primates 9:67–69.

  Smith, David Livingstone. 2007. The most dangerous animal: Human nature and the origins of war. New York: St. Martin’s.

  Smith, E. A. 2003. Human cooperation: Perspectives from behavioral ecology. In Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation, ed. Peter Hammerstein, 401–427. Dahlem Workshop Reports. Cambridge: MIT Press.

  Smith, Holly, and Robert L. Tompkins. 1995. Toward a life history of the Hominidae. Annual Review of Anthropology 24:257–279.

  Smith, J., S. C. Alberts, and J. Altmann. 2003. Wild female baboons bias their social behaviour towards paternal half-sisters. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 270:503–510.

  Smith, M. S. 1991. An evolutionary perspective on grandparent-grandchild relationships. In The psychology of grandparenthood: An international perspective, ed. P. K. Smith, 157–176. London: Routledge.

  Smuts, Barbara. 1985. Sex and friendship in baboons. New York: Aldine.

  Snowdon, C. 1984. Social development during the first twenty weeks in the cottontop tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Animal Behaviour 32:432–444.

  ———. 1996. Infant care in cooperatively breeding species. Advances in the Study of Behavior 25:643–689.

  Snowdon, C. T., and K. A. Cronin. 2007. Cooperative breeders do cooperate. Behavioural Processes 76:138–141.

  Sober, E., and David Sloane Wilson. 1998. Unto others: The evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

  Solomon, J., and C. George, eds. 1999. Attachment disorganization. New York: Guilford.

  Solomon, Nancy G., and Jeffrey A. French. 1997. The study of mammalian cooperative breeding. In Cooperative breeding in mammals, ed. Nancy G. Solomon and Jeffrey A. French, 1–10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  ———, eds. 1997. Cooperative breeding in mammals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Soltis, Joseph. 2004. The signal functions of early infant crying. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27:443–490.

  Sommer, Matthew H. 2005. Making sex work: Polyandry as a survival strategy in Qing Dynasty China. In Gender in motion: Divisions of labor and cultural change in late imperial and modern China, ed. Bryna Goodman and Wendy Larson, 29–54. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

  Sommer, Volker. 1994. Infanticide among the langurs of Jodhpur: Testing the sexual selection hypothesis with a long-term record. In Infanticide and parental care, ed. Stefano Parmigiani and F. vom Saal, 155–198. Langhorne, PA: Harwood Academic.

  Spangler, Gottfried, and Karin Grossmann. 1999. Individual and physiological correlates of attachment disorder in infancy. In Attachment disorganization, ed. J. Solomon and C. George, 95–124. New York: Guilford.

  Spencer-Booth, Yvette, and R. A. Hinde. 1971a. Effects of brief separation from mother on rhesus monkeys. Science 173:111–118.

  ———. 1971b. Effects of 6 days’ separation from mother in 18- to 32-week-old rhesus monkeys. Animal Behaviour 19:174–191.

  Spieker, S. J., and L. Bensley. 1994. Roles of living arrangements and grandmother social support in adolescent mothering and infant attachment. Developmental Psychology 30:102–111.

  Spier, R. E. 2002. Towards a new human species. Review of Redesigning animals and our posthuman future. Science 296:1807–8.

  Stack, Carol. 1974. All our kin: Strategies for survival in a black community. New York: Harper and Row.

  Stallings, Joy, Alison Fleming, C. Corter, C. Worthman, and M. Steiner. 2001. The effects of infant cries and odors on sympathy, cortisol, and autonomic responses, I: New mothers and nonpostpartum women. Parenting: Science and Practice 1:71–100.

  Stanford, Craig. 1999. The hunting apes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  ———. 2003. Upright: The evolutionary key to becoming human. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

  Starr, Alexandra. 2003. Washington’s $1 billion lectu
re to the poor: Why a “pro-marriage” bill isn’t likely to help much. BusinessWeek, October 20, 2003, 116.

  Stern, Daniel. 2002. Lecture at a conference on Attachment: Early Childhood through the Lifespan, March 9–10, UCLA. Audio tape/cd version available at www.lifespanlearn.org.

  Stern, Daniel, S. Spieker, R. Barnett, and K. Mackain. 1983. The prosody of maternal speech: Infant age and context related change. Journal of Child Language 10:1–15.

  Stewart, Kelly J. 2001. Social relationships of immature gorillas and silverbacks. In Mountain gorillas: Three decades of research at Karisoke, ed. M. M. Robbins, P. Sicotte, and K. J. Stewart, 183–213. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Stiner, Mary, N. D. Munro, T. Surovell, E. Tchernov, and O. Bar-Yosef. 1999. Paleolithic population growth pulses evidenced by small animal exploitation. Science 283:190–194.

  Stoll, Andrew L. 2001. The omega-3 connection. New York: Simon and Schuster.

  Stone, Lawrence. 1977. The family, sex and marriage in England, 1500–1800. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

  Storey, Anne E., Krista M. Delahunty, D. W. McKay, C. J. Walsh, and S. I. Wilhelm. 2006. Social and hormonal bases of individual differences in the parental behaviour of birds and mammals. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:237–245.

  Storey, Anne E., Carolyn J. Walsh, Roma L. Quinton, and Katherine E. Wynne-Edwards. 2000. Hormonal correlates of paternal responsiveness in new and expectant fathers. Evolution and Human Behavior 21:79–95.

  Strassmann, B. 1993. Menstrual hut visits by Dogon women: A hormonal test distinguishes deceit from honest signaling. Behavioral Ecology 7 (3):304–315.

  ———. 1997. Polygyny as a risk factor for child mortality among the Dogon. Current Anthropology 38:688–695.

  Strassmann, B., and B. Gillespie. 2007. Life-history theory, fertility and reproductive success in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 269:552–569.

  Strassmann, B., and K. Hunley. 1996. Polygyny, sorcery and child mortality among the Dogon of Mali. Paper presented at the 95th annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, November 20–24, San Francisco.

  Strathearn, Lane, Jian Li, Peter Fonagy, and P. Read Montague. 2007. Infant affect modulates maternal brain reward activation. (Abstract.) Paper presented at the Parental Brain Conference, Tufts University, June 7–10, Boston.

  Strier, Karen B. 1992. Faces in the forest: The endangered muriqui monkeys of Brazil. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Struhsaker, Thomas. 1975. The red colobus monkey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Sugiyama, Lawrence, and Richard Chacon. 2005. Juvenile responses to household ecology among the Yora of Peruvian Amazonia. In Hunter-gatherer childhoods, ed. B. Hewlett and M. Lamb, 237–261. Piscataway, NJ: Aldine/Transaction.

  Sugiyama, Lawrence S., J. Tooby, and L. Cosmides. 2002. Cross-cultural evidence of cognitive adaptations for social exchange among the Shiwiar of the Ecuadorian Amazonia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 99:11537–42.

  Sumner, Petroc, and J. D. Mellon. 2003. Colors of primate pelage and skin: Objective assessment of conspicuousness. American Journal of Primatology 59:67–91.

  Symons, Don. 1979. The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  ———. 1982. Another woman that never existed. Quarterly Review of Biology 57:297–300.

  Tardieu, C. 1998. Short adolescence in early hominids: Infantile and adolescent growth in the human femur. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 107:163–178.

  Taub, David. 1984. Primate paternalism. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

  Taylor, Shelley. 2002. The tending instinct: How nurturing is essential to who we are and how we live. New York: Henry Holt.

  Thierry, Bernard. 2007. Unity in diversity: Lessons from macaque societies. Evolutionary Anthropology 16:224–238.

  Thiessen, Del, and Yoko Umezawa. 1998. The sociobiology of everyday life. Human Nature 9:293–320.

  Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall. 2006. The old way: A story of the first people. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giraux.

  Thompson, Ross A. 2006. The development of the person: Social understanding, relationships, self, conscience. In Handbook of child psychology, 6th ed., vol. 3: Social, emotional, and personality development, ed. N. Eisenberg, 24–98. New York: Wiley.

  Thompson, Ross A., K. E. Grossmann, M. R. Gunnar, M. Heinrichs, H. Keller, T. G. O’Connor, G. Spangler, E. Voland, and S. Wang. 2005. Early social attachment and its consequences. In Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis, ed. C. S. Carter et al., 349–383. Dahlem Workshop Reports. Cambridge: MIT Press.

  Thornton, Alex, and Katherine McAuliffe. 2006. Teaching in wild meerkats. Science 313:227–229.

  Tiger, Lionel. 1970. Men in groups. New York: Vintage.

  Tomasello, Michael. 1999. The cultural origins of human cognition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

  ———. 2007. For human eyes only. New York Times, January 13, 2007.

  Tomasello, Michael, Josep Call, and Brian Hare. 2003. Chimpanzees understand psychological states—the question is, which ones and to what extent? Trends in Cognitive Science 7:153–156.

  Tomasello, Michael, Malinda Carpenter, Josep Call, Tanya Behne, and Henrike Moll. 2005. Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28:675–691.

  Tomonaga, Masaki, Mayasuki Tanaka, Tetsoro Matsuzawa, M. Myowa-Yamakoshi, Daisuke Kosugi, Yuu Mizuno, Sanae Okamoto, Masami Yamaguchi, and Kim Bard. 2004. Development of social cognition in infant chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Face recognition, smiling, gaze, and the lack of triadic interactions. Japanese Psychological Research 46:227–235.

  Toth, Amy L., K. Varala, T. C. Newman, F. E. Miguez, S. K. Hutchison, D. A. Willoughby, J. F. Simons, M. Egholm, J. H. Hunt, M. E. Hudson, and G. E. Robinson. 2007. Wasp gene expression supports an evolutionary link between maternal behavior and eusociality. Science 318:441–444.

  Townsend, Simon W., K. E. Slocombe, Melissa E. Thompson, and Klaus Zuberbühler. 2007. Female-led infanticide in wild chimpanzees. Current Biology 17(10):R355–356.

  Trevarthen, C. 2005. Stepping away from the mirror: Pride and shame in adventures of companionship: Reflections on the nature and emotional needs of infant intersubjectivity. Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis, ed. C. S. Carter et al., 55–84. Dahlem Workshop Reports. Cambridge: MIT Press.

  Trevarthen, C., and K. J. Aitken. 2001. Infant intersubjectivity: Research, theory, and clinical applications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 42:3–48.

  Trevarthen, Colwyn, and K. Logotheti. 1989. Child and culture: Genesis of cooperative knowing. In Cognition and social worlds, ed. A. Gellatly, D. Rogers, and J. Sloboda, 37–56. Oxford: Clarendon University Press.

  Trivers, R. L. 1971. The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35–57.

  ———. 1972. Parental investment and sexual selection. In Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971, ed. B. Campbell, 136–179. Chicago: Aldine.

  ———. 1974. Parent-offspring conflict. American Zoologist 14:249–264.

  ———. 2006. Reciprocal altruism—30 years later. In Cooperation in primates and humans, ed. P. M. Kappeler and C. P. van Schaik, 67–83. Berlin: Springer.

  Tronick, Edward, H. Als, L. B. Adamson, S. Wise, and T. B. Brazelton. 1978. The infant’s response to entrapment by contradictory messages in face-to-face interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 17:1–13.

  Tronick, Edward Z., Gilda A. Morelli, and Paula K. Ivey. 1992. The Efe forager infant and toddler’s pattern of social relationships: Multiple and simultaneous. Developmental Psychology 28:568–577.

  Tronick, E. Z., G. Morelli, and S. Winn. 1987. Multiple caretaking of Efe (Pygmy) infants. American Anthropologist 89:96–106.

  Tsao, Doris Y., Winrich A. Freiwald, Roger B. H. Tootell, and Margaret S. Livingstone. 2006. A cortical region consisting entirely of
face-selective cells. Science 311:670–74.

  Tucker, Bram, and A. G. Young. 2005. Growing up Mikea: Children’s time allocation and tuber foraging in southwestern Madagascar. In Hunter-gatherer childhoods, ed. B. Hewlett and M. Lamb, 147–171. Piscataway, NJ: Aldine/Transaction.

  Turke, Paul. 1988. “Helpers at the nest”: Childcare networks on Ifaluk. In Human reproductive behaviour: A Darwinian perspective, ed. L. Betzig, M. Borgerhoff Mulder, and P. Turke, 173–188. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Turnbull, Colin M. 1965. The Mbuti pygmies: An ethnographic survey. New York: American Museum of Natural History.

  ———. 1978. The politics of non-aggression. In Learning non-aggression, ed. A. Montagu, 161–221. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Turner, Sarah E., Lisa Gould, and David A. Duffus. 2005. Maternal behavior and infant congenital limb malformation in a free-ranging group of Macaca fuscata on Awaji Island, Japan. International Journal of Primatology 26:1435–57.

  Tyre, Peg, and Daniel McGinn. 2003. She works, he doesn’t. Newsweek, May 12, 2003, 44–52.

  Ueno, Ari. 2006. Food sharing and referencing behavior in chimpanzee mother and infant. In Cognitive development in chimpanzees, ed. T. Matsuzawa, M. Tomonaga, and M. Tanaka, 172–181. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

  Valeggia, Claudia. 2009. Changing times: Who cares for the baby now? In Substitute parents: Alloparenting in human societies, ed. G. Bentley and R. Mace. New York: Berghahn Books.

  Valenzuela, Marta. 1990. Attachment in chronically underweight young children. Child Development 61:1984–96.

  Van der Dennen, J. 1995. The origin of war, 2 vols. Groningen: Origin Press.

  Van IJzendoorn, Marinus, and Abraham Sagi. 1999. Cross-cultural patterns of attachment. In Handbook of attachment, ed. Jude Cassidy and Phillip Shaver, 713–734. New York: Guilford.

  Van IJzendoorn, Marinus, Abraham Sagi, and Mirjam Lambermon. 1992. The multiple caretaker paradox: Data from Holland and Israel. In Beyond the parents: The role of other adults in children’s lives, ed. R. C. Pianta, 5–24. New Directions for Child Development 57. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

  Van IJzendoorn, Marinus, C. Schuengel, and M. Bakermans-Kranenburg. 1999. Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology 11:225–250.