El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

  131 Otero, My Nine Years as the Governor of the Territory of New Mexico, p. 212.

  132 Ibid., p. 216.

  133 For more on English-language education, see Erlinda Gonzales-Berry, “Which Language Will Our Children Speak? The Spanish Language and Public Education Policy in New Mexico, 1890–1930,” in Gonzales-Berry and Maciel, The Contested Homeland, p. 173; Otero, My Nine Years as the Governor of the Territory of New Mexico, p. 214.

  134 Braeman, “Albert J. Beveridge and Statehood for the Southwest 1902–1912,” p. 318.

  135 Nieto-Phillips, “Spanish American Ethnic Identity and New Mexico’s Statehood Struggle,” p. 122.

  136 Orville Platt to Stephen Elkins, February 5, 1889, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Thomas B. Catron Papers, 1692–1934, MSS 29, BC, Series 102, Box 2, Folder 5.

  137 Braeman, “Albert J. Beveridge and Statehood for the Southwest 1902–1912,” p. 322.

  138 Theodore Roosevelt, Fifth Annual Message, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29546 (accessed October 5, 2016).

  139 Noel, “‘I Am an American,’” pp. 435, 450; see also Linda C. Noel, Debating American Identity: Southwestern Statehood and Mexican Immigration (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2014); Braeman, “Albert J. Beveridge and Statehood for the Southwest 1902–1912,” p. 327; Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 181.

  140 Noel, “I Am an American,” p. 434.

  141 La Voz del Pueblo, February 25, 1911, quoted in Noel, “I Am an American,” p. 445.

  142 For more detail on this, see Nieto-Phillips, “Spanish American Ethnic Identity and New Mexico’s Statehood Struggle,” pp. 123–24.

  143 “Taft Rebukes New Mexicans: Sharply Answers Speakers Who Utter Doubts on Statehood Promises,” New York Times, October 17, 1909.

  144 For more on this marginalization, see Noel, “I Am an American,” pp. 461–65.

  145 Holtby, Forty-Seventh Star, pp. 231–32.

  146 Ibid., p. xiii.

  Chapter 12: Del Rio, Texas

  1 This photo is reproduced in Carole Nagger and Fred Ritchin (eds.), México: Through Foreign Eyes/Visto Por Ojos Extranjeros, 1850–1990 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), pp. 138–39. See also Claire F. Fox, The Fence and the River: Culture and Politics at the U.S. Mexico Border (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), pp. 81–85.

  2 Fox, The Fence and the River, p. 81.

  3 For a starting point for much more detail about the Mexican Revolution in the English-language literature, see Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, Porfirians, Liberals and Peasants, and vol. 2, Counter-Revolution and Reconstruction (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990).

  4 Fox, The Fence and the River, p. 69.

  5 See chapter 2 in Gilbert M. Joseph and Jürgen Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution: Social Upheaval and the Challenges of Rule Since the Late Nineteenth Century (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2013).

  6 John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750–1940 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), pp. 258–67.

  7 Ibid., pp. 269–70.

  8 Ibid., pp. 283–84; John Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” in Leslie Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), vol. 5, p. 82.

  9 Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico, pp. 289, 298.

  10 John Mason Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, pp. 409–10.

  11 Quoted in Chasteen, Born in Blood and Fire, p. 194.

  12 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 409; Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, p. 46.

  13 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 35–36.

  14 Ibid., pp. 34–35. See extracts in English at Document #4: “Plan de San Luis de Potosí,” Brown University Library, Center for Digital Scholarship, https://library.brown.edu/create/modernlatinamerica/chapters/chapter-3-mexico/primary-documents-with-accompanying-discussion-questions/document-4-plan-de-san-luis-de-potosi-francisco-madero-1910/; or in Spanish at http://www.bibliotecas.tv/zapata/1910/plan.html (accessed October 18, 2016).

  15 Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, p. 181.

  16 Ibid., p. 184.

  17 For a detailed account of Zapata and Morelos during the revolution, see John Womack Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (London: Penguin, 1972).

  18 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 42–43.

  19 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 84.

  20 Ibid., p. 85.

  21 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 412.

  22 Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 202–18.

  23 Joseph and Buchenau. Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 42–43.

  24 Ibid., pp. 49–51; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 413.

  25 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 415.

  26 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 52.

  27 Ibid., p. 53.

  28 Ibid., p. 56; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 419.

  29 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 59.

  30 Ibid., p. 60; St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 132.

  31 Nancy Brandt, “Pancho Villa: The Making of a Modern Legend,” Americas 21, no. 2 (1964): 155.

  32 Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds, pp. 137–38.

  33 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 122–23.

  34 Ralph S. Connell to Albert B. Fall, July 29, 1913, Albert B. Fall family papers, MS 0008, New Mexico State University Library, Archives and Special Collections Department, MS 8, Box 7, Folder 15.

  35 Albert Fall to Ralph S. Connell, August 16, 1913, ibid.

  36 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 421.

  37 Telegraph from W. H. Austin to T. B. Catron, April 23, 1914, New Mexico History Collection, Center for Southwest Research, University Libraries, University of New Mexico, Thomas B. Catron Papers, 1692–1934, MSS 29, BC, Series 501, Box 6, Folder 1.

  38 Letter from Thomas B. Catron to William Jennings Bryan, April 23, 1914, ibid.

  39 Frank McLynn, Villa and Zapata: A Biography of the Mexican Revolution (London: Jonathan Cape, 2000), pp. 214–15; Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 99.

  40 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 131; McLynn, Villa and Zapata, pp. 219–20.

  41 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 422; McLynn, Villa and Zapata, p. 220.

  42 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” pp. 422–24; St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 131.

  43 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 60–61.

  44 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 425.

  45 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 106.

  46 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 423; Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, pp. 296–301.

  47 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 63–64; McLynn, Villa and Zapata, p. 261.

  48 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 63–65.

  49 Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, pp. 303–5.

  50 Ibid., p. 306.

  51 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 113.

  52 L. W. Mix to Frederick Simpich, January 29, 1916, NARA, RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Relating to Internal Affairs of Mexico, 1910–1920, M274, Roll 190.

  53 Langston Hughes, The Big Sea (New York: Hill and Wang, 2015), pp. 39–40, Kindle.

  54 McLynn, Villa and Zapata, p. 399.

  55 Oscar J. Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution: Personal Accounts from the Border (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983), p. 248.

  56 Ibid., pp. 254–55.

  57 Charles H. Harris III and Louis R. Sadler, The Plan De San Diego:
Tejano Rebels, Mexican Intrigue (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2013), p. 1.

  58 Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, p. 85.

  59 Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, pp. 1-5.

  60 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, p. 146.

  61 Vargas, Crucible of Struggle, p. 185; Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, p. 19.

  62 David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp. 122–25.

  63 Ibid., p. 119; Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, p. 86.

  64 Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, p. 27; Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, p. 117.

  65 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 73; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 428.

  66 Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 121; Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 436.

  67 Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico, pp. 337–39.

  68 Harris and Sadler, The Plan De San Diego, p. 6.

  69 James Sandos, “Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson’s Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered,” Journal of Latin American Studies 13, no. 2 (1981): 300.

  70 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, pp. 250–53.

  71 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 431.

  72 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, pp. 178–79.

  73 Sandos, “Pancho Villa and American Security,” p. 295.

  74 Ibid., p. 293.

  75 Martínez, Fragments of the Mexican Revolution, p. 182.

  76 Narrative Report, 13th U.S. Cavalry, Concerning the Part the Regiment Took in the Punitive Expedition, U.S. Army, into Mexico, from March 15, 1916, to June 2, 1916, March 16, 1916, NARA, RG 395: Records of the U.S. Army Overseas Operations and Commands, 1898–1942, Box 1, NM-94, E-1201, HM 1999.

  77 Sandos, “Pancho Villa and American Security,” p. 303.

  78 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 78.

  79 Zimmermann Telegram, NARA, RG 59, General Records of the Department of State, 1756–1979, available online at https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/zimmermann/#documents.

  80 For more on Germany’s involvement in Mexico, see Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).

  81 Quoted in Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 8–83, 92; Womack, “The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920,” p. 130; Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico, p. 340. For a full text of the current Mexican constitution, see https://www.oas.org/juridico/mla/en/mex/en_mex-int-text-const.pdf.

  82 Hart, “The Mexican Revolution,” p. 434.

  83 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 84–85.

  84 Ibid., pp. 92–95.

  85 St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 143–45.

  86 Monica Muñoz Martinez, “Recuperating Histories of Violence in the Americas: Vernacular History-Making on the U.S.-Mexico Border,” American Quarterly 66, no. 3 (2014): 667–69.

  87 Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, p. 64.

  88 Ibid., pp. 85–86.

  89 Muñoz Martinez, “Recuperating Histories of Violence in the Americas,” pp. 667–69; Carrigan and Webb, Forgotten Dead, pp. 124–25.

  90 Timothy Henderson, Beyond Borders: A History of Mexican Migration to the United States (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 32–33; St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 182.

  91 Richard Delgado, “The Law of the Noose: A History of Latino Lynching,” Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review 44 (2009): 305.

  92 Starr, California: A History, p. 169.

  93 Ibid., p. 170.

  94 Sánchez et al., New Mexico: A History, p. 181.

  95 Ibid., p. 182.

  96 Ibid., pp. 182–83.

  97 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 216.

  98 Starr, California: A History, p. 170; Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 212.

  99 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 214.

  100 Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986; see chapter 5.

  101 This decline was later compounded by Japanese internment during the Second World War. See Kelly Lytle Hernández, Migra! A History of the U.S. Border Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), pp. 22–23.

  102 Ibid., p. 37; St. John, Line in the Sand, pp. 103–4.

  103 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 97.

  104 Ibid., p. 99.

  105 Ibid.

  106 Ibid., p. 163.

  107 Ibid., pp. 151–53.

  108 Ibid., pp. 156–57, 160.

  109 Ibid., p. 110.

  110 Ibid., pp. 166, 172–73.

  111 Katherine Benton-Cohen, “Other Immigrants: Mexicans and the Dillingham Commission of 1907–1911,” Journal of American Ethnic History 30, no. 2 (2011): 33.

  112 For the full text of the legislation, see http://library.uwb.edu/static/USimmigration/39%20stat%20874.pdf (accessed July 15, 2016); Benton-Cohen, “Other Immigrants,” p. 37.

  113 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 25.

  114 Benton-Cohen, “Other Immigrants,” p. 37.

  115 Ibid., p. 38.

  116 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 31.

  117 Ibid.

  118 Karl De Laittre, “The Mexican Laborer and You,” Nation’s Business 18 (November 1930). For more on the idea of the Mexican as being a “temporary” worker, see Noel, Debating American Identity.

  119 Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, pp. 181–82, 228.

  120 St. John, Line in the Sand, p. 186.

  121 Quoted in Hernández, Migra! p. 35.

  122 Ibid., pp. 53–55.

  123 Ibid.

  124 Julie M. Weise, “Mexican Nationalisms, Southern Racisms: Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the U.S. South, 1908–1939,” American Quarterly 60, no. 3 (2008): 749.

  125 Ibid., p. 754.

  126 Ibid., pp. 755, 758.

  127 Ibid., p. 772.

  128 WPA Tampa Office Records 1917–1943, University of South Florida Special Collections, 1929, p. 241.

  129 Ibid.

  130 Evelio Grillo and Kenya Dworkin y Méndez (intro.), Black Cuban, Black American: A Memoir (Houston, Tex.: Arte Público Press, 2000), loc. 192, Kindle.

  131 Ibid., loc. 200.

  132 Ibid., loc. 216.

  133 Natalia Molina, “‘In a Race All Their Own’: The Quest to Make Mexicans Ineligible for U.S. Citizenship,” Pacific Historical Review 79, no. 2 (2010): 168, 176.

  134 Ibid., pp. 178–80.

  135 Jovita González Mireles and María Eugenia Cotera (ed.), Life Along the Border: A Landmark Tejana Thesis (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006), p. 6.

  136 Priscilla Solis Ybarra, “Borderlands as Bioregion: Jovita González, Gloria Anzaldúa, and the Twentieth-Century Ecological Revolution in the Rio Grande Valley,” MELUS 34, no. 2 (2009): 175–89.

  137 González Mireles and Cotera, Life Along the Border, p. 41.

  138 Ibid.

  139 Ibid., p. 113. González later married and worked as a teacher in Corpus Christi and died in 1983. She also cowrote two novels, Dew on the Thorn and Caballero: A Historical Novel, with Eve Raleigh, but the manuscripts were not discovered until her papers were donated to the library at Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi in 1992. They have since been published.

  140 Julián Juderías, La leyenda negra (Madrid: Editorial Swan, 1986), p. 28.

  141 Ibid.

  142 Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 245.

  143 Michael Kammen, The Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), p. 55.

  144 Flores, “Private Visions, Public Culture: The Making of the Alamo,” p. 99.

  145 Ibid.

  146 Ibid., p. 101.

  147 Ibid., p. 103.

  148 Kenneth Baxter Rag
sdale, The Year America Discovered Texas: Centennial ’36 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1987), p. 1.

  149 James Early, Presidio, Mission, and Pueblo: Spanish Architecture and Urbanism in the United States (Dallas, Tex.: Southern Methodist University Press, 2004), p. 210.

  150 Kammen, The Mystic Chords of Memory, p. 47.

  151 Carey McWilliams, and Dean Stewart and Jeannine Gendar (eds.), Fool’s Paradise: A Carey McWilliams Reader (Santa Clara, Calif.: Santa Clara University, 2001), p. 4.

  152 Monroy, “The Creation and Re-Creation of Californio Society,” pp. 73–195.

  153 Phoebe S. Kropp, California Vieja: Culture and Memory in a Modern American Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), p. 28.

  154 Richard Amero, “The Making of the Panama-California Exposition, 1909–1915,” San Diego Historical Society Quarterly 36, no. 1 (1990).

  155 Christopher Reynolds, “How San Diego’s, San Francisco’s Rival 1915 Expositions Shaped Them,” http://www.latimes.com/travel/california/la-tr-d-sd-sf-1915-panama-expos-20150104-story.html (accessed December 10, 2015).

  156 Harral Ayres, “Building of Old Spanish Trail as Thrilling as the Romance of Its Padres and Conquistadores,” 1929, Briscoe Center for American History, 978 AY22B.

  157 James W. Travers, From Coast to Coast Via the Old Spanish Trail (San Diego, Calif.: 1929).

  158 Benny J. Andrés Jr., “La Plaza Vieja (Old Town Alburquerque): The Transformation of a Hispano Village, 1880s–1950s,” in Gonzalez-Berry and Maciel, The Contested Homeland, p. 243.

  159 Ibid., pp. 252–56.

  160 Ibid., p. 240.

  161 Ibid., pp. 252–56.

  162 Patricia Galloway, “Commemorative History and Hernando de Soto,” in Patricia Galloway (ed.), The Hernando De Soto Expedition: History, Historiography, and “Discovery” in the Southeast, pp. 419, 421.

  163 Annelise K. Madsen, “Reviving the Old and Telling Tales: 1930s Modernism and the Uses of American History,” in Judith A. Barter (ed.), America After the Fall: Painting in the 1930s (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2016), p. 93; Galloway, “Commemorative History and Hernando de Soto,” p. 422.

  164 David J. Weber, “Turner, the Boltonians, and the Borderlands,” American Historical Review 91, no. 1 (1986): 69; Albert L. Hurtado, “Bolton and Turner: The Borderlands and American Exceptionalism,” Western Historical Quarterly 44, no. 1 (2013): 6.