Fortress Europe- European Fortifications Of World War II

by J E Kaufmann

  The seaborne invasion force would have found a coastline with rather impressive obstacles, although anti-personnel mines were lacking. The heavy guns defending the Dover area did not become a real factor until after 1940. The lack of well equipped and armed troops would have allowed the Germans to establish a beachhead once the artillery batteries were neutralized.

  The Germans planned for an assault on Gibraltar, Operation Felix, in 1941, but this required Franco's Spain to help. An amphibious operation was out of the question for the Axis forces. A ground assault against the peninsula would have neutralized the vital airfield and land batteries along the bay. This would have shut down the harbor area. But the British batteries could also have rained havoc on Spanish positions at Algeciras. The chances of actually storming and taking the Rock were not good and the tunnels held an unknown amount of supplies which may have allowed a lengthy siege. Only Axis air power might have made a decisive difference, but this is all speculative. Franco, who greatly desired possession of Gibraltar, was not willing to risk joining the Axis to partake in an operation which might prove an embarrassment so soon after winning his civil war.

  The Axis powers tried to isolate the island of Malta early in the war. In July 1941 a battery of 57-mm coastal guns destroyed five Italian boats in two minutes during a human torpedo attack on Valletta harbor. In March 1942 the Germans and Italians planned an assault on Malta (Operation Herkules) with each using a parachute division. The attempt to strangle the island with air power had only been partially successful, but it continued to jeopardize Axis supply lines to North Africa.

  Axis plans called for airborne forces to secure a bridgehead on the southern heights of the island from which to attack the airfields south of Valletta. The Italian navy was to carry two to three divisions for an amphibious landing on the southeast coast, while its heavy units bombarded the coastal batteries there. A diversionary naval attack was to be made at Marsa Scirocco. Events in North Africa moved too quickly after the fall of Tobruk and resulted in delaying the invasion. Soon the airborne forces were sent to reinforce Rommel's army at El Alamein and the invasion was canceled. The British lifeline was preserved and the Italian crippled.

  Remains of a line of AT Cubes used here on a Stop Line and also on some beaches. (Bernard Lowry)

  Brick FW3/24 pillbox located at Weston Zoyland Airfield near Bridgewater, Somerset. (John Hellis)

  Typical FW3/24 pillbox located atTrebyen, Cornwall. (John Hellis)

  Bunker for a 6 Pounder Hotchkiss AT Gun located on the Taunton Stop Line at Curry Mallet, nearTaunton. (John Hellis)

  British Type 24 Pillbox.

  This is a "thick walled" version.

  The central wall was an anti-ricochet wall and it was designed for light MG and rifles.

  Drawing based on illustrations by

  Medwyn Parry and Roger Thomas.

  British Type 23 Pillbox.

  The non-embrasured half was open and mounted a light AA weapon.

  Based on an illustration by Medwyn Parry and Roger Thomas.

  British TTET Turret for one man with a light MG. The turret revolved a full 360 degrees.

  British prefabricated PICKETT-HAMILTON FORT. Used on airfields in 1940 so that if attacked the 2-man machine gun crew could raise the turret with the hydraulic jack.

  Malta

  Chapter 7

  ITALY

  BACKGROUND

  Italy was another of Europe's relatively new states. Military and diplomatic maneuvering united most of the Italian peninsula in March 1861. The Sardinian king, when crowned King of Italy, united the Italian people for the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire. The addition of Venice in 1866 and Rome in 1870, largely completed Italian unification.

  The timing of Italy's reunification was fortuitous with regard to defenses, because a new generation of fortifications arose throughout Europe after the FrancoPrussian War, particularly in the 1880s, when the "torpedo" or high explosive shell was perfected. Thus Italy had the opportunity to adopt the newest techniques and technology in the construction of the fortifications it needed to secure its borders. However, it seems that the Italian military engineers were not able to take full advantage of the window of opportunity offered to them by history. Most of the fortifications that were completed in Italy by the end of the century were not as modern as those built by most of their neighbors.

  Italy had two problems with defense. The first was that she shared borders with France, Switzerland, and Austria-Hungary dominated by Europe's most rugged and imposing mountains, the Alps. Ironically, the barrier that offered great defensive potential for Italy also protected its neighbors from attack. In some areas the Alps formed a highly defendable barrier, while near the Austro-Hungarian border along the Adriatic, Italy only held the foothills while its neighbor controlled the heights. The situation was similar in the Austrian-occupied region of Trento.

  The second problem was the excessive length of the Italian coastline. Italy felt a need to defend the Adriatic coastline against Austria, its enemy in the recent wars for reunification, which still held Trento and Trieste. The Triple Alliance contracted in 1882 failed to allay Italy's fear of its erstwhile foe. In addition, the Ligurian coast required defenses against France, which was no longer considered a friend due to colonial rivalry over Tunisia. So, caught between two hostile powers, the Italians thought it prudent to protect their entire coastline from naval raids.

  In 1862, after ceding Savoy to France, the Italian government formed the Commisione permanente di difesa to study the problem of fortifying the Franco-Italian border and the coast. It took only a few years after the completion of the commission's work in 1871, for the government to approve the funds for construction of the new defenses. Some of these forts controlled the access routes through the Maritime, Cottian and Graian Alps. In 1875 another defense committee chose the 150-mm cannon to arm the land fortifications. The fortification armament for the remainder of the century consisted of 150-mm and 120-mm cannons and howitzers and 150mm mortars. At the same time defensive positions were planned for the AustroHungarian border where their old adversary held the key terrain.

  The heaviest concentration of fortifications was on the western approaches to Turin. The Fenestrelle and Assietta fortress complex, created before the end of the century, defended the Chisone Valley and the adjacent Susa Valley, blocking the main lines of advance from Briancon, France, to Turin through the Cottian Alps. This complex consisted of two rings of forts and was armed with 150-mm and 120mm cannons and 150-mm howitzers and mortars. The defenses above the Assietta Pass, which overlooked both valleys, were completed in 1903. In the older as well as the newer forts, some of the artillery pieces were mounted on barbette carriages, in casemates, or in open positions. A few were mounted in turrets. The guns on barbette mounts of other open positions proved to be vulnerable during exercises carried out in the 1890s. The short term solution was to add armored shields to these weapons for the partial protection of the crew.

  To the north of Fenestrelle and partially covered by its guns, was Susa, which consisted of several forts and batteries armed with 120-mm cannons, 57-mm guns, and mortars. These positions closed the Dora River Valley at the point where it merged with the Cenischia. Further down the valley, a pass was formed by the Doria Riparia that led to Turin. This pass was defended by several forts built between the 1870s and 1890s and armed with weapons ranging from 120-mm cannons and 150-mm howitzers to 57-mm guns. Only Fort Fenil was relatively modern, being the only one completed in the 1890s and mounting eight 120-mm guns in armored casemates along with two 90-mm and two 57-mm guns, and encircled by a deep moat. This position constituted the last line of defense on the route to Turin.

  Heavily fortified advanced positions were also created near the border. At Bardonecchia access to the Frejus Tunnel was controlled by a defensive position consisting of a caserne built in 1875. The area's defenses also included Fort Jafferau with eight 150-mm weapons in open emplacements atop the mountain
of the same name at 2,775 meters elevation, which supported the positions below that guarded the tunnel and pass. This fort was later armed with the newer 149-mm guns. In addition, the two turrets of 120-mm guns, two batteries of 150-mm guns in barbettes, four 57-mm guns in turrets, and six 90-mm guns of Fort Bramafan covered the tunnel and pass at the confluence of the Cenischia and Dora rivers.

  Further north, in the area of Moncenisio (Mount Cenis) near the border, fortifications stretched from Mt. Malamot across the pass to the slopes of Mt. Lamet. Three new forts had been built to help the older fort from the Napoleonic Era close the Moncenisio Pass. In 1897 two three-gun batteries were placed behind earth works near the top of Mt. Malamot at 2,913 meters, in the vicinity of a fortified caserne built six years earlier. This position dominated the southern half of Lake Moncenisio (Lake Mont Cenis).

  At the beginning of the century, Fort Pramand was constructed near Salbertrand on Mt. Pramand (over 2,612 meters high) to close that section of the Dora Riparia River, between Susa and Cesena. Located southeast of Fort Jafferau, it was one of the first forts to be armed with 149-mm turret guns (four guns) early in the century. An additional 149-mm gun battery was located nearby.

  Fort Chaberton, one of the most important forts of this region, was nearly finished by 1906. Located near Cesena, it was intended to close the approaches from Briancon. It was built on top of Mt. Chaberton at 3,130 meters above sea level, the highest elevation for any modern fort of the period. The fort was considered an autonomous unit for long-range fire. It mounted eight 149-mm guns installed on cement and brick towers shielded from the French by the crest of the mountain.

  While the Genio del Corpo (Engineer Corps) handled the design and construction of the Italian forts, the artillery corps was responsible for their main armament. Early in the century the war minister and the artillery corps had wanted to use an Armstrong 152-mm gun in some of the forts, including Fort Chaberton. However, they finally opted for the Italian-built 149-mm/35 for financial reasons. The guns were installed at Fort Chaberton and a few other Alpine forts between 1904 and 1914.

  Some of the older Italian forts were disarmed after 1911. Others were refurbished and modernized in preparation for a war with France and, for the most part, remained in service during World War II. After it joined the Triple Entente in 1915, Italy, which had concentrated its defensive efforts against France, found that its pre-war fortifications were no longer needed against its erstwhile enemy. Most of the artillery of these forts was removed and sent to the Austrian front.

  After World War I, Italy ended up with new border lines that required new fortifications. After the Great War, one of the strongest networks of fortifications in Italy stretched along the Italo-Austrian border for approximately 650 km. However, most of these defenses were former Austrian works that faced Italian territory.

  Coastal defenses were also carefully considered by the Italians. In 1871 the government commission for defense selected the port of Genoa, the naval base of La Spezia, and Rome as the priority sites for coastal defenses. In 1882 the commission decided to install armored turrets with 400-mm Krupp guns at La Spezia, Taranto, and other ports. However, as in the case of the land defenses, when funds became scarce these plans had to be dropped.

  When World War I began, La Spezia was armed with 300 pieces of artillery, over half of which were 240-mm to 320-mm weapons, that included landward defenses. Genoa was also heavily defended and included a main battery of 320-mm guns for coastal defense. During the war the emphasis shifted toward the Adriatic ports. Venice, which was well defended, included a battery of two 400-mm Krupp guns in turret, a battery of two 381-mm/40 guns in turret, a battery of six 321-mm guns, a battery of two 305-mm/50 cannons, four batteries of six 280-mm howitzers, and a battery of six 240-mm cannons. The port of Brindisi had two batteries of 381mm/40 guns similar to those of Venice, one four-gun and one three-gun battery of 280-mm howitzers, and a battery of four 254-mm/45 cannons. Ancona had several heavy batteries that included 280-mm howitzers and 254-mm/45 cannons. A number of other ports had heavy defenses, but surprisingly Naples did not.

  One of the most ambitious projects of the Great War era was the creation of the Ponti Rifugio for the protection of shipping along the west and south coast of Italy. This plan called for the installation of over 300 batteries of 57-mm to 152-mm guns along the coast. The Ponti Rifugio plan also proposed to draw its personnel from the army rather than the navy, which was largely in charge of protecting the Italian harbors.

  MAJOR FORTIFICATIONS

  The Vallo Alpino (The Alpine Wall)

  Coast Defenses

  Island Defenses

  LOCATION

  Over thirty-five percent of Italy is mountainous and more than forty percent is hilly. Its economic centers are concentrated on the plains, mainly in the north, where most of them are protected by the rugged terrain of the peninsula. The industrial region of Turin-Genoa-Milan is easily defensible.

  1. The Vallo Alpino

  The Vallo Alpino or Alpine Wall stretched along one of the greatest mountain barriers in Europe spanning about 1,850 km of the entire Italian land border with the remainder of Europe. It consisted of three fronts: Occidental (Western) that ran along the 487 km of the French border, Septentrional (Northern) following the 724 km of Swiss border, and Oriental (Eastern) facing 420 km of frontier with Austria and 220 km withYugoslavia. These fronts were further subdivided into sectors or settori and sub-sectors, that changed numerous times because they were based on the jurisdictions of Guardia Alpina alla Frontiera or G.A.F. (Frontier Alpine Guards) units.

  In 1940 the sectors on the Occidental Front ran northward from the coast to the Swiss border, and were numbered I through X. They made up three major defended areas, the most important of which was the central, between Monginevro and Moncenisio.1

  The Occidental Front included the Western Alpine region consisting of the Maritime Alps, the Cottian Alps, and the Graian Alps, which created a major barrier, even without fortifications, with only six major routes from France and three key mountain passes. The Maritime and the Cottian Alps had elevations averaging above 2,000 meters above sea level while the Graian Alps towered above the others averaging heights of more than 3,000 meters. In most cases these routes were set widely apart and all were difficult, even on the coast, because of the high, rugged mountains they traversed.

  Part of this western region included the Pennine Alps, which like the Graian Alps, consisted of soaring heights and large, glacier covered sections. The Pennine Alps formed an almost impassable barrier between Italy and Switzerland, penetrated only by a couple of important but easily defended passes. Most of this region required no defenses, especially since no hostilities were expected on the part of the Swiss. During World War I Italy had set up positions in this area for fear of a German attack through Switzerland. These defenses remained serviceable after the war."

  The Septentrional Front stretched along most of the Central Alps that included two major groups of mountains averaging elevations above 2,500 meters. The sections shared with Switzerland required little defensive work. The Oriental Front extended eastward toward the Adriatic Sea, along the remainder of the Alps.

  The area that bordered with western Austria included the Dolomites and formed part of the Trentino region, ceded to Italy after the Great War. Its mountains averaged heights of more than 3,000 meters above sea level and it was virtually impass able. Access from Austria was only possible through a limited number of passes, the most important of which was the Brenner Pass. The remainder of the border with Austria was dominated by the Carnic Alps, with elevations above 1,500 meters and included only two crossing points.

  Along the Yugoslav border the terrain was less forbidding, but no less mountainous. It included part of the Carnic and the Julian Alps. In this region Italy inherited the heavily fortified Carso Plateau, the Pola Peninsula, and parts of the Carnic and Julian Alps. This made the eastern border easy to defend and completed the Alpine Wall.


  2. The Coast Defense

  In most cases, the coastal terrain was favorable to defense even though it was not as ideal as the Alps. The rugged Ligurian coast, an extension of the Maritime Alps, was easy to defend. Only one major pass, the Cadibona Pass near Genoa, allowed access from the coast into the northern plains. Most of the Italian coast line in the west was easily defended because most of its beaches were located in large bays dominated by the hilly interior or rocky promontories. The east coast had more beach areas, but fewer seaports than the west coast. Any assault against a lightly defended sector, in most cases, could be checked by taking up positions in the Appennines that covered most of the peninsula. The natural barrier formed by the marshy coastline of Venice and the Po River Valley was no longer threatened after the change of borders, and the acquisition of bases along the eastern Adriatic.

  3. Island Defenses

  Sardinia, Sicily, Pantelleria, and the Italian occupied islands of the Dodecanese offered favorable defensive positions and allowed Italy to project its naval influence into the Mediterranean. Most were mountainous and served as bases from which the Italian army and navy could challenge any possible British threat and secure the route to the Italian Empire in North Africa.

  However, the greatest drawback for the Italian armed forces was the extent of the coastline and land frontier, and the number of islands to be defended. Even though it was an industrial power, Italy did not have the resources to defend adequately its whole periphery.