Notes to Pages 388–394
699
1966–1970 period, resulting in the cumulative net migration of 2,271,000
people to the city. The population of Seoul, in particular, shot up from 2,445,000 in 1960 to 5,536,000 by 1970. Tonga yôn’gam 1970 [Tonga Year Book 1970 edition] (Seoul: Dong-A Ilbosa, 1970), 529.
32. Kim Dae-jung, Haengdonghan¤n yangsim-¤ro [With Conscience in Action]
(Seoul: K¤mmundang, 1985), 44–46.
33. Ch’oe Chang-jip, “Kunbu kwônwiju¤i cheje-¤i naebu mosun-gwa pyônhwa-
¤i donghak” [The Internal Contradictions and the Dynamics of Change in the Military Authoritarian Regime], in Hyôndae han’guk chôngch’i-ui kujo-wa pyônhwa [The Structure and Transformation of Contemporary Korean Politics], by Ch’oe Chang-jip, 194.
34. Son Se-il, “Sindonga int’ôbyu—chôn sinmindang taet’ongryông hubo Kim Dae Jung-ssi” [A Sindonga Interview—Former New Democratic Party Presidential Candidate Kim Dae Jung], Sindonga (February 1975) no.126: 78.
35. Park Chung Hee, “1972 New Year Press Conference” (January 1, 1972), in the Secretarial Office of the President, Park Chung Hee taet’ongryông yônsôlmunjip che gujip [Collection of President Park Chung Hee’s Speeches, Vol. 9], (Seoul: Secretarial Office of the President, 1965–73), 25.
36. Han’guk kidokkyo sahoemunje yônguwôn, 1970 nyôndae minjuhwa undong-kwa kidokkyo [Christianity and Democratization Movements in the 1970s], 103.
37. Haptong yon’gam [Haptong Year Book] (Seoul: Haptong t’ongsinsa, 1972), 102.
38. Kim ón-ho, “R¤ppo, ônron chayu undong” [Free Press Movement], Sindonga (March 1975): 92; and Cho Sang-ho, Han’guk ônron-gwa ch’ulpan chônôllij¤m [The Korean Press and Print Journalism] (Seoul: Nanam, 1999), 148.
39. Kim ón-ho, “R¤ppo, ônron chayu undong” [Free Press Movement].
40. Han’guk kidokkyo sahoemunje yôn’guwôn, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong-gwa kidokkyo [Christianity and Democratization Movements in the 1970s], 258.
41. Kim Sam-ung, Minjok, minju, minjung sônôn [Declaration of the Nation, Democracy, and Minjung], 174.
42. Park Chung Hee, “Kin’g¤p choch’i sa-ho sônp’o ch¤¤mhan t’¤kpyôl tam-hwa” [Special Address on the Occasion of the Promulgation of Emergency Decree no. 4], in the Secretarial Office of the President, Park Chung Hee taet’ongryông yônsôlmunjip che sipiljip [Collection of President Park Chung Hee’s Speeches, 11]: 128–129.
43. Han’guk kidokkyo sahoemunje yôn’guwôn, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong-gwa kidokkyo [Christianity and Democratization Movements in the 1970s], 139.
44. With his poem “O chôk” [The Five Enemies], Kim Chi-ha came to symbolize the spirit of resistance among South Korean intellectuals.
45. Kim Sam-ung, Minjok, minju, minjung sônôn [Declaration of the Nation, Democracy, and Minjung] , 267–268.
46. Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe [Korean Council of Christian
Notes to Pages 394–395
700
Churches], 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong: kidokkyo in’gwôn undong-¤l chungsim-¤ro 2 [Democratization Movements in the 1970s: A Focus on Christian Human Rights Movements, vol. 2] (Seoul: Korean Council of Christian Churches, 1987): 664–665.
47. Yi Kwang-il, “Panch’eje undong-¤i chôn’gaegwajông-gwa sônggyôk” [The Process and Nature of Anti-System Movements], in Park Chung Hee-r¤l nômôsô [Beyond Park Chung Hee], ed. Korean Politics Research Society (Seoul: P’ur¤nsup, 1998), 182.
48. Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong [Democratization Movements of the 1970s], 2:685–687 and Kim Sam-ung, Minjok, minju, minjung sônôn [Declaration of the Nation, Democracy, and Minjung], 269–267. The original draft of this declaration was written by Mun Ik-hwan. The process of drafting is discussed in Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong [Democratization Movements of the 1970s], 2:688–689.
49. Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong [Democratization Movements of the 1970s,], 2: 687; Kim Sam-ung, Minjok, minju, minjung sônôn [Declaration of the Nation, Democracy, and Minjung], 272–273.
50. Mun Ik-hwan, Ham Se-ung, Kim Dae-jung, Moon Tong-hwan, Yi Mun-yông, Sô Nam-dong, An Pyông-mu, Sin Hyôn-bong, Yi Hae-dong, Yun Pan-ung, Mun Chông-hyôn were arrested and convicted. Yun Po-sôn, Ham Sôk-hôn, Chông Il-hyông, Yi T’ae-yông, Yi U-jông, Kim S¤ng-hun, Chang Tôk-p’il, Kim T’aek-am, An Ch’ung-sôk were indicted without physical detention and convicted. Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong [Democratization Movements of the 1970s], 2:690–694.
51. Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong [Democratization Movements of the 1970s], 2:700.
52. See Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe, 1970 nyôndae minjuhwa undong
[Democratization Movements of the 1970s,], 2:697–818, for the court deliberations.
53. The works of journalist-turned-professor Yi Yông-h¤i were particularly liberating for student activists. By espousing a critical worldview free from the fetters of the cold war and anticommunism, his works were interpreted as bringing a “Copernican” transformation of student perceptions by the progressives, and as heretical Marxist-Leninism by the conservatives. The radical student movements called him the “Master of Thought.” In his book Usang-gwa Yisung [Idol and Rationality], Yi Yông-h¤i lashed out against the yushin regime as the “idol” standing in the way of the rationality that the chaeya represented. See Kim Chae-myông, “An Intellectual in the Age of Transformation: Professor Yi Yông-h¤i” Choson Monthly (October 1988): 213–333; Cho Sang-ho, Han’guk ônron-gwa ch’ulpan chônôllij¤m [The Korean Press and Print Journalism], 183–200.
54. In parallel to An Pyông-mu and Sô Nam-dong’s development of an indigenous minjung theology, Han Wan-sang developed what he called “minjung sociol-
Notes to Pages 396–408
701
ogy” in the hope of liberating academia from the repressive influences of standard modernization theories.
55. For details on the South Korean church and the human rights movement, see Han’guk kidokkyo kyohoe hyôp¤ihoe, 1970nyôndae minjuhwa undong 5
[Democratization Movements of the 1970s, vol. 5].
56. Han S¤ng-hôn et al., Yushin ch’eje-wa minjuhwa undong [The Yushin Regime and the Democratization Movement] (Seoul: Ch’unch’usa, 1984), 296–308.
57. Kim Young-sam warned in the interview with the New York Times that “the United States should not repeat in South Korea what it did in Iran.” By that, he meant that an anti-American popular revolution could break out if the United States kept backing Park’s authoritarian rule. Han S¤ng-hôn et al., Yushin ch’eje-wa minjuhwa undong [The Yushin Regime and the Democratization Movement] , 331.
58. William H. Gleysteen, Jr., Massive Entanglement, Marginal Influence: Carter and Korea in Crisis (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988), 37.
59. Aristide R. Zolberg, “Moments of Madness,” Politics and Society 2, no. 2
(Winter 1972): 183–207; Pak Myông-rim, “T¤kbyôl kihoek: haebang 50nyôn, han’guk hyôndaejôngch’i-¤i pansông-gwa chônmang ‘sudong hyông-myông-gwa kwanggi-¤i sun’gan” [Contemporary Korean Politics: Passive Revolution and Moments of Madness, 1945–1995], Sahoebip’yông [Critical Review on Society], vol. 13 (Seoul: Nanam, September 1995).
14. The Vietnam War: South Korea’s Search for National Security 1. U.S. Senate, “United States Security Agreements and Commitments Abroad”
(hereafter U.S. SACA), Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, 91st Congress (Washington, D.C., 1970), 1566–1568.
2. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Kôn’gun 50nyônsa [Fifty Years’ History of the Korean Armed Forces]
(Seoul: Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], 1998), 210.
3. Yong Sun Yim, ed., Handbook on Korean-U.S. Relations (Seoul: Asia Society, 1985), 6.
4. Sungjoo Han, “South Korea’s Participation in the Vietnam Conflict: An Analysis of the U.S.-Korean Alliance,” Orbis 21, no. 4 (Winter 1978): 902.
5. The guidelines called for instilling cadre potential in every soldier, modernizing the entire military, arming the entire population, and turning the whole nation into a fortress.
6. Yi Ki-jong, Han’guk kukchegwan’gyesa [History of South Korea’s International Relations] (Seoul: Hyôngsôlch’ulp’ansa, 1992), 160–161; Dong-Ju Choi, “The Political Economy of Korea’s Involvement in the Second Indo-China War” (Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1995), 90–92. See also Memo for NSC, March 2, 1954, NSC Series, Policy Papers Sub-series, Box 10, WHO
File, DDE Library; Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Kukbangsa yônp’yo 1945–1990 [A Chronology of
Notes to Pages 408–412
702
National Defense History] (Seoul: Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], 1994), 154, 157.
7. George McT. Kahin, Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1987), 42.
8. Kyudok Hong, “Unequal Partners: ROK-US Relations during the Vietnam War” (Ph.D. diss., University of South Carolina, 1991), 89.
9. Department of State, “Memo for Conversation, Park and Kennedy,” November 14 and 15, 1961, Box 128, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library; Hong Kyu-dôk, “P’abyông oegyo-wa anbo sind¤rom: 60nyôndae han’guk oegyo chôngch’aek- ¤i p’yôngga” [The Diplomacy of Dispatching Troops to Vietnam and Security Syndrome: An Evaluation of South Korea’s Foreign Policy in the 1960s], Kukche chôngch’i nonch’ong 22:2 [Korean Journal of International Relations 22, no. 2] (1992): 27; and Dong-Ju Choi, “The Political Economy of Korea’s Involvement in the Second Indo-China War,”
93–94.
10. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Wôlnam p’abyong-gwa kukkabaljôn [The Dispatch of Troops to Vietnam and National Development], (Seoul: Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], 1996), 163.
11. Kim Sông-¤n, “Chônhwan’gi-¤i naemak: wôlnam p’abyông” [The Dispatch of Korean Troops to Vietnam: Unknown Story of a Transition Period], Chosun Ilbo, November 25, 1981.
12. Dong-A Ilbo, January 12, 1965.
13. Park ordered some of his DRP legislators to oppose the troop dispatch to obtain leverage vis-à-vis the United States. See Yi Tong-wôn, Taet’ongryông-¤l k¤rimyô [Missing the President] (Seoul: Koryôwôn, 1992), 118–126.
14. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Wôlnam p’abyông-gwa kukkabalchôn [The Dispatch of Troops to Vietnam and National Development], 175.
15. Secretarial Office of the President, ed., Park Chung Hee taet’ongryong yônsôlmunjip, [Collection of President Park Chung Hee’s Speeches, vol.1], (Seoul: The Secretarial Office of the President, 1973), 191–193.
16. Only five nations dispatched troops to South Vietnam: South Korea, 50,000; Thailand, 11,570; Australia, 7,600; the Philippines, 2,060; and New Zealand, 550. Sungjoo Han, “South Korea’s Participation in the Vietnam Conflict,”
893–896.
17. Ibid., 897.
18. Lyndon B. Johnson, The Vantage Point: Perspective of the President, 1963–69
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 142–146.
19. Yi Tong-wôn, “Che samgong oegyo pihwa: k¤ yôksa k¤ hyônjang” [The Third Republic: Its Hidden Diplomatic Stories: Their History and Their Sites], Kukmin Ilbo, October 31, 1989.
20. Yi Tong-wôn, Taet’ongryông-¤l k¤rimyô [Missing the President], 112–114.
21. War History Compilation Committee, the Ministry of National Defense, Kukpang choyakjip [The Treaties of National Defense] (Seoul: Ministry of National Defense, 1981), 708–710.
Notes to Pages 413–418
703
22. Stanley Larsen and James Lawton Collins, Jr., Allied Participation in Vietnam (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1975), 124–125.
23. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Wô lnam p’abyô ng-gwa kukkabaljô n [The Dispatch of Troops to Vietnam and National Development], 183.
24. Yi Tong-wôn also demanded that the United States support the modernization of South Korean forces, provide financial support for South Korean troops in South Vietnam, procure military supplies for South Korean troops in South Vietnam, and support South Korea’s access to the South Vietnamese market.
Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Wô lnam p’abyô ng-gwa kukkabaljô n [The Dispatch of Troops to Vietnam and National Development], 176–177.
25. Dong-Ju Choi, “The Political Economy of Korea’s Involvement in the Second Indo-China War,” 156.
26. Yi Sang-u, Che samgonghwaguk oegyo pisa [The Untold Diplomatic Story of the Third Republic] (Seoul: Chosun Ilbosa, 1985), 262.
27. Kim Sông-¤n, “Wôlnam p’abyông” [The Dispatch of Korean Troops to Vietnam], Chosun Ilbo, December 6, 1981.
28. Chông Su-yong, “Han’guk-¤i pet¤namjôn p’abyông-gwa hanmi tongmaeng-ch’eje-¤i pyônhwa” [South Korea’s Dispatch of Combat Troops to Vietnam and the Change in the South Korea–U.S. Alliance] (Ph.D. diss., Korea University, 2001), 235.
29. Ministry of National Defense, Kukbangsa, 3 [The History of National Defense, vol.3] (Seoul: Ministry of National Defense, 1990), 351–352.
30. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Wôlnam p’abyông-gwa kukkabaljôn [The Dispatch of Troops to Vietnam and National Development], 201.
31. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Kôn’gun 50nyônsa [Fifty Years’ History of the Korean Armed Forces], 220.
32. Yi Sang-u, Che 3konghwaguk oegyo pisa [The Untold Diplomatic Story of the Third Republic], 283.
33. Frank Baldwin, “America’s Rented Troops: South Koreans in Vietnam,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars (October–December 1975), fn 36.
34. Interview with Chông Il-gwôn, as reported by Yi Ki-jong, Han’guk kukchegwan’gyesa [History of Korea’s International Relations], 239.
35. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Wôlnam p’abyông-gwa kukkabalchôn [The Dispatch of Troops to Vietnam and National Development], 200.
36. Hong Kyu-dôk, “P’abyông oegyo-wa anbo sind¤rom” [The Diplomacy of Dispatching Troops to Vietnam and Security Syndrome], 169–170.
37. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Wôlnam p’abyông-gwa kukkabaljôn [The Dispatch of Troops to Vietnam and National Development], 193.
38. Ibid. , 192.
39. Yi Tong-wôn, Taet’ongryông-¤l k¤rimyô [Missing the President], 133–134.
Notes to Pages 419–424
704
40. Kukpangbu, Kunsa p’yônch’an yôn’guso [War History Compilation Committee, the Ministry of National Defense], Kukpang choyakchip [The Treaties of National Defense], (Seoul: Kukpangbu, Kunsa p’yônch’an yôn’guso [War History Compilation Committee, the Ministry of National Defense], 1997–
2006), 265–266.
41. U.S. SACA, 1531.
42. U.S. SACA, 1604–1607. Also see Dong-A Ilbo, February 8 and March 11, 1966.
43. Yang
Sông-ch’ôl
and
Mun
Chông-in,
“Hanmi
anbo
kwan’gye-¤i
chaejomyông: p’ueb¤loho sagôn-¤i wigi mit tongmaeng kwanlli sarye-r¤l chungsim-¤ro” [Reconsideration of Security Relations between South Korea and the U.S.: Focusing on the Crisis and Alliance Management during the Pueblo Incident], in Han’guk-kwa miguk: chongch’i anbo kwan’gye [South Korea and the U.S.: Political and Security Relations], ed. An Pyông-jun (Masan: Far East Research Institute, K
yungnam University, 1988), 69.
44. See Dong-A Ilbo, January 30, 2001.
45. There existed a critical gap in the two countries’ interpretation of Park’s original position. The United States thought he agreed to the dispatch of a third combat division, but South Korea thought it was committed only to the dispatch of civil personnel. See Frank Baldwin, “America’s Rented Troops: South Koreans in Vietnam,” 35. Also consult Dong-A Ilbo, November 11, 1966.
46. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Kukpang chôngch’aek pyônch’ônsa: 1945–1994 [Changing Nature of Korean National Defense Policy: 1945–1994], (Seoul: Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], 1995), 166.
47. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Kôn’gun 50nyônsa [Fifty Years’ History of the Korean Armed Forces], 218.
48. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Hanmi chôngsang’gan tandok hoedamrok mit yang’guk kakryo hoe¤irok” [The Documents of the Summit Meetings and Bilateral Ministerial Talks between Republic of Korea and the United States] (Seoul: Diplomacy Archives Division, 2005), Registration no.
3017, Film No. C-0033, 430–442.
49. Pak Sil, Park chung hee taet’ongryô ng-gwa miguk taesagwan [President Park and the U.S. Embassy] (Seoul: Paegyang ch’ulp’ansa, 1993), 175–176.
50. Kyudok Hong, “Unequal partners: ROK-US Relations during the Vietnam War,” 227–228.
51. Sungjoo Han, “South Korea’s Participation in the Vietnam Conflict,” 907.
52. Kukpang kunsa yôn’guso [Research Institute for Defense and Military History], Kôn’gun 50nyônsa [Fifty Years’ History of the Korean Armed Forces], 248.
53. U.S. Department of State, Briefing Memorandum to the Secretary, April 20, 1971. (Maryland National Archives V.)
54. Memorandum, April 26, 1972, “Meeting with Foreign Minister Kim Yong Sik of South Korea,” RG59, State Department Documents, Subject Numeric Files, 1970–73 Political and Defense Box, 2423. (Maryland National Archives V.) 55. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Han’guk oegyo 30nyôn: 1948–1978 [Thirty
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