The Orphans of Davenport

by Marilyn Brookwood

39.Skeels, “Children in Foster Homes,” 106.

  40.Harold M. Skeels and Eva A. Fillmore, “The Mental Development of Children from Underprivileged Homes,” Journal of Genetic Psychology 50, no. 2 (1937): 438.

  41.Thomas R. Henry, “Report on Test Variation Blasts Old Theories on I.Q.” Washington Star, Washington, DC, December 30, 1937, A-2.

  42.Henry, “Report on Test Variation,” A-2.

  43.Thomas R. Henry, “The Wandering IQ,” National Rehabilitation News, June 1, 1938, 13–14.

  44.Henry, “Report on Test Variation,” A-2.

  45.Henry, “Report on Test Variation,” A-2.

  46.Beth L. Wellman, “Mental Growth from Preschool to College,” Journal of Experimental Education 6, no. 2 (1937): 138.

  47.Dorothy A. Pownall, “The Dull Child Made Bright by a New Environment,” New York Herald Tribune, April 10, 1938, 16.

  48.Associated Press, June 29, 1938.

  49.Time, July 11, 1938.

  50.New York Times, September 11, 1938, 51.

  51.Time, November 7, 1938.

  52.Time, November 7, 1938.

  53.Albert E. Wiggam, The Fruit of the Family Tree (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1924), frontmatter.

  54.Wiggam, Fruit of the Family Tree, 346.

  55.Wiggam, Fruit of the Family Tree, 4.

  56.Albert E. Wiggam to Lewis M. Terman, June 29, 1939, LMT.

  57.Harold M. Skeels, interview by Albert E. Wiggam, April 21, 1939, 1.

  58.Skeels, interview by Wiggam, April 21, 1939, 3.

  59.Beth L. Wellman, interview by Albert E. Wiggam, April 21, 1939, 7.

  60.Wellman, interview by Wiggam, April 21, 1939, 9.

  61.Wellman, interview by Wiggam, April 21, 1939, 10.

  62.George D. Stoddard, interview by Albert E. Wiggam, April 21, 1939, 17.

  63.Kandel and Squire, “Breaking Down Scientific Barriers,” 1113–20.

  64.Kandel and Squire, “Breaking Down Scientific Barriers,” 1113–20.

  65.Wiggam to Terman, June 29, 1939, LMT.

  66.Lewis M. Terman to Albert E. Wiggam, July 10, 1939, LNT.

  67.Wiggam, “Are Dummies Born or Made?” 124.

  68.Albert E. Wiggam, Let’s Explore Your Mind (New York: Penguin Pocket Books, 1949), 235.

  69.Frederick Osborn, “To What Extent Is a Science of Man Possible?” Scientific Monthly 49, no. 5 (1939): 453.

  70.Osborn, “Science of Man,” 455.

  Chapter Eight: The Way the Land Lies

  1.Simpson, “Wandering IQ, 358, 365–366.

  2.Simpson, “Wandering IQ,” 351.

  3.Simpson, “Wandering IQ,” 362.

  4.Simpson, “Wandering IQ,” 366.

  5.Terman to Simpson, March 16, 1939, LMT.

  6.Terman to Simpson, April 7, 1939, LMT.

  7.Simpson to Terman, May 29, 1939, LMT.

  8.May V. Seagoe, Terman and the Gifted (Los Angeles: William Kaufmann, 1975), 47.

  9.Terman to Cattell, November 29, 1944, LMT.

  10.Goodenough to Hollingworth, April 4, 1939, FLG.

  11.Skeels and Dye, “Study of the Effects of Differential Stimulation,” 115.

  12.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 2, MSC.

  13.Skodak Crissey, “Harold Manville Skeels,” 1.

  14.Skeels and Dye, “Study of the Effects of Differential Stimulation,” 114.

  15.Alfred Binet, Les Idèes Mordernes sur Les Enfants (Paris: Flammarion, 1911), 346. Quoted in George D. Stoddard, “The I.Q.: Its Ups and Downs,” Educational Record Supplement 12 (1939): 54.

  16.Frederick Weizmann, “From the ‘Village of a Thousand Souls’ to ‘Race Crossing in Jamaica’: Arnold Gesell, Eugenics and Child Development,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 46, no. 3 (2010): 268.

  17.Skeels and Dye, “Study of the Effects of Differential Stimulation,” 133.

  18.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 114.

  19.Personal communication, Hamilton Cravens to author, January 8, 2011.

  20.Skodak Crissey, “Harold Manville Skeels,” 2.

  21.Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 19.

  22.Vinsel, “He Gave the Retarded Hope,” 2.

  23.“Put among Morons, Dull Babies Improve,” New York Times, May 7, 1939, 6.

  24.“Confirming a Belief,” editorial, Atlanta Constitution, May 19, 1939, 10.

  25.“Feeble-Minded Love,” Time, May 15, 1939, 42.

  26.“Feeble-Minded Love,” Time, May 15, 1939, 42.

  27.Kühl, Nazi Connection, 43.

  28.Terman to Gozney, January 13, 1939, LMT.

  29.“Psychology War Rages,” Los Angeles Times, July 8, 1939, 8.

  30.Beth Wellman and George Stoddard, “The IQ: A Problem in Social Construction,” The Social Frontier 5, no. 42 (1939): 152.

  31.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 13, MSC.

  32.Marie Skodak Crissey, interview by Milton J. E. Senn, 20, MJES.

  33.Thomas Gladwin, “Statement by Dr. Thomas Gladwin, June 14, 1961” (unpublished), 1, MSC.

  34.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 46.

  35.Franz Boas, “Evidence on the Nature of Intelligence Furnished by Anthropology and Ethnology,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed. Guy Montrose Whipple, Addresses and Discussions: “Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture” (Salem, MA: Newcomb and Gauss, 1940), 11.

  36.Frederick Osborn, “Implications of the Yearbook for Eugenics,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed. Guy Montrose Whipple, Addresses and Discussions: “Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture” (Salem, MA: Newcomb and Gauss, 1940), 57.

  37.E. W. Burgess, “The Social Implications of Nature-Nurture Studies,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed. Guy Montrose Whipple, Addresses and Discussions: “Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture” (Salem, MA: Newcomb and Gauss, 1940), 80.

  38.Terman to Simpson, June 7, 1939, LMT.

  39.Stoddard to Whipple, July 18, 1939, 2, UISC.

  40.Oakland Tribune, July 5, 1939, 2.

  41.James Fox and Bill Bartley, “Good Morning,” Daily Iowan, February 21, 1940, 1.

  42.“Psychology War Rages,” Los Angeles Times, 6.

  43.“Psychology War Rages,” Los Angeles Times, 6.

  44.“Psychology War Rages,” Los Angeles Times, 6.

  45.“Intelligence—Its Nature AND NURTURE,” Daily Iowan, July 8, 1939, 2.

  46.Dwight Mitchell, “Educators Debate Freedom, Heredity, Cinema at Session,” Stanford Daily, July 11, 1939.

  47.Stoddard to Terman, July 12, 1939, UISC.

  48.Terman to Stoddard, July 13, 1939, UISC.

  49.Terman to Stoddard, July 13, 1939, UISC.

  50.Quinn McNemar, “Quinn McNemar,” in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, ed. Gardner Lindzey (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1980), 320.

  51.Goodenough to Terman, September 26, 1939, LMT.

  52.Terman to Goodenough, October 3, 1939, LMT.

  53.Goodenough to Terman, December 31, 1939, LMT.

  54.Florence Goodenough, “Look to the Evidence! A Critique of Recent Experiments on Raising the I.Q.” Educational Method 19, no 2 (1939): 74.

  55.Wellman to Line, December 18, 1939, UISC.

  56.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 114.

  57.Marie Skodak Crissey, interview by Barbara Kalbfell, October 31, 1979, CGI.

  58.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 114.

  Chapter Nine: “Even If It Didn’t Work, It Was a Good Idea!”

  1.Barbara Burks to Lewis M. Terman, February 14, 1940, LMT.

  2.Terman to Burks, February 19, 1940, LMT.

  3.“Education: Nature V. Nurture,” Time, March 11, 1940.

  4.George D. Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook on ‘Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture,’” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Addresses and Discussions: “Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture”
(Salem, MA: Newcomb and Gauss, 1940), 3.

  5.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 3

  6.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 3.

  7.Time, March 11, 1940.

  8.Paul A. Witty, “Evidence Regarding the Nature of Intelligence from the Study of Superior Deviates,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook, Intelligence of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Addresses and Discussions: “Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture” (Salem, MA: Newcomb and Gauss, 1940), 30.

  9.Jane Loevinger, “Intelligence Related to Socio-Economic Factors,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Part I (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), chapter 5, 204.

  10.Martin L. Reymert and Ralph T. Hinton, “The Effect of a Change to a Relatively Superior Environment upon the IQs of One Hundred Children,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Part II (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), chapter 17.

  11.Grace E. Bird, “The Effect of Nursery School Attendance upon the Mental Growth of Children,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Part II (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), chapter 4.

  12.Nancy Bayley, “Mental Growth in Young Children,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Part II (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), chapter 3.

  13.Gertrude Hildreth, “Adopted Children in a Private School,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Part II (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), chapter 10.

  14.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 49.

  15.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 51–52.

  16.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 51–52.

  17.Robert R. Rusk, “The Intelligence of Scottish Children,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Part II (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), chapter 18.

  18.Conrad H. Waddington, Introduction to Modern Genetics (New York: Macmillan, 1939), 357–58.

  19.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 55.

  20.Lewis M. Terman, “Personal Reactions of the Committee,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy M. Whipple, Part I (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), 460.

  21.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 4.

  22.Stoddard, “Introducing the Yearbook,” 4.

  23.Quinn McNemar, “A Critical Examination of the University of Iowa Studies of Environmental Influences upon the IQ,” Psychological Bulletin 37, no. 2 (1940): 64.

  24.George D. Stoddard et al. Reply to McNemar, 1939 (unpublished notes), MSC.

  25.Lewis M. Terman and Albert E. Wiggam, Correspondence, 1925–1953, LMT.

  26.Bernadine Barr, “Spare Children,” 230.

  27.Beth L. Wellman, Harold M. Skeels, and Marie Skodak, “Review of McNemar’s Critical Examination of Iowa Studies,” Psychological Bulletin 37, no. 2 (1940), 96.

  28.McNemar, “Environmental Influences upon the IQ,” 70.

  29.Harold Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 55.

  30.Harold Skeels et al., “Study of Environmental Stimulation,” 44.

  31.McNemar, “Environmental Influences upon the IQ,” 70.

  32.Wellman et. al, “Review of McNemar’s Critical Examination,” 97.

  33.Brueckner, L. J., “The Cumulative Effects of a Policy of Non-Failing,” Journal of Educational Research 29, no. 4 (1934): 289.

  34.Wellman et al., “Review of McNemar’s Critical Examination,” 101.

  35.McNemar, “Environmental Influences upon the IQ,” 75.

  36.Marie Skodak, “Comments on a Reply to Quinn McNemar: A Critical Examination of Iowa Studies of Environmental Influences upon the IQ” (unpublished, 1940), 6, MSC.

  37.Wellman et al, “Review of McNemar’s Critical Examination,” 106.

  38.Florence L. Goodenough, “Can We Influence Mental Growth: A Critique of Recent Experiments,” The Educational Record Supplement 21, no. 13 (1940): 135.

  39.George D. Stoddard, “Intellectual Development of the Child: An Answer to the Critics of the Iowa Studies,” School and Society 51, no. 1322 (1940): 529–30.

  40.Wellman et al., “Review of McNemar’s Critical Examination,” 98.

  41.Quinn McNemar, “More on the Iowa IQ Studies,” Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 10 (1940): 239.

  42.Wellman et al., “Review of McNemar’s Critical Examination.”

  43.Stoddard. “Intellectual Development of the Child,” 530–36.

  44.Wellman, “Fickle IQ.” 51-60.

  45.Florence L. Goodenough to Lewis M. Terman, March 11, 1940, LMT.

  46.Paul A. Witty, “Research Upon The American Negro,” in The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture, ed. Guy Montrose Whipple, Part I (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940): 267.

  47.Witty, “Study of Superior Deviates,” 30.

  48.Goodenough to Terman, March 11, 1940, LMT.

  49.Benjamin R. Simpson to Lewis M. Terman, March 9, 1940.

  50.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 59.

  51.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 59.

  52.Henry L. Minton, Lewis M. Terman, Pioneer in Psychological Testing (New York: New York University Press, 1988), 266–67.

  53.Cravens, Before Head Start, 212–13.

  54.Cravens, Before Head Start, 213.

  55.George D. Stoddard, “What Every Teacher Should Know—About the Dionne Quintuplets,” Childhood Education 14, no 9 (1937): 399–402.

  56.Sheldon H. White and Stephen L. Buka, “Early Education: Programs, Traditions, and Policies,” Review of Research in Education 14, no. 13 (1987): 63.

  57.Barbara Burks to Lewis M. Terman, May 20, 1940, LMT.

  58.Steve McNutt, “A Dangerous Man,” 25.

  59.Burks to Terman, May 29, 1940, LMT.

  60.Burks to Terman, October 16, 1942, LMT.

  61.John Burnham, “The Evolution of Editorial Peer Review,” Journal of the American Medical Association 263, no. 10 (1990): 1328.

  62.Cravens, Before Head Start, 307.

  63.Guy M. Whipple, ed., The Thirty-Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Nature and Nurture (Bloomington, IL: Public School Publishing, 1940), xviii.

  64.Diane Paul, “Textbook Treatments of the Genetics of Intelligence,” Quarterly Review of Biology 60 (September 3, 1985): 324.

  65.Marie Skodak Crissey, interview by Henry L. Minton, January 15, 1982, 13–14.

  66.Louis C. Branca interview by Marilyn Brookwood, September 10, 2012.

  67.Harold M. Skeels, “A Study of the Effects of Differential Stimulation on Mentally Retarded Children: A Follow-Up Report.” American Journal of Mental Deficiency 46, no. 3 (1940): 342.

  68.Skeels, “Effects of Differential Stimulation: A Follow-Up Report,” 346.

  69.Skeels, “Effects of Differential Stimulation: A Follow-Up Report,” 348.

  70.Skeels, “Effects of Differential Stimulation: A Follow-Up Report.”

  71.Skodak Crissey, interview by Senn, 20, MJES.

  72.Skodak Crissey, interview by Senn, 25, MJES.

  73.Peter Schjedahl, “Return of the Native,” The New Yorker, March 12, 2018, 80–81.

  74.Joni Kinsey, “Cultivating Iowa: An Introduction to Grant Wood,” in Grant Wood’s Studio: Birthplace of American Gothic, ed. Jane C. Milosch (Munich: Prestel, 2005), 29.

  75.Geor
ge Painter, “Sodomy Laws: The Sensibilities of Our Forefathers: The History of Sodomy Laws in the United States,” accessed May 19, 2018, https://www.glapn.org/sodomylaws/sensibilities/iowa.htm.

  76.Grant Wood to George D. Stoddard, March 29, 1940, UISP.

  77.George D. Stoddard to Virgil M. Hancher, April 14, 1941, UISP.

  78.Lewis M. Terman and Catherine C. Miles, Sex and Personality: Studies in Masculinity and Femininity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1936), 259–260.

  79.Terman and Miles, Sex and Personality, 284–320.

  80.Marie Skodak Crissey to Harold M. Skeels’s unnamed cousin, ca. April 1970, MSC.

  81.Lois Barklay Murphy, “On Coping and Change,” Catherine Molony Memorial Lecture, 1980, 6.

  82.Murphy, “On Coping and Change,” 8.

  83.Marie Skodak Crissey, interview by Kalbfell, CGI.

  84.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 63.

  Chapter Ten: A Chill in the Air

  1.Florence L. Goodenough to Lewis M. Terman, November 19, 1940, LMT.

  2.Skodak Crissey, interview by Minton, 14, MSC.

  3.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 49.

  4.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 49.

  5.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 49.

  6.Stoddard, “An Autobiography,” in Leaders, 331.

  7.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 67.

  8.Luther H. Gulick to George D. Stoddard, November 1, 1941, GDS.

  9.Wiley B. Rutledge to George D. Stoddard, September 22, 1941, GDS.

  10.Esther Collester to George D. Stoddard, June 17, 1942, GDS.

  11.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 71.

  12.Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence, 321.

  13.Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence, 461.

  14.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 75.

  15.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 92.

  16.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 98.

  17.John McDonough, “Stoddard Back in Old Haunts,” Daily Iowan, October 5, 1947.

  18.Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 110.

  19.Chicago Sun Times, July 23, 1953, quoted in Stoddard, Pursuit of Education, 136.

  20.“The Final Arrow,” Time, August 3, 1953, 41.

  21.Robert R. Sears, interview by Milton J. E. Senn, October 3, 1968, interview 64, 4, MJES.

  22.Robert R. Sears to George D. Stoddard, October 8, 1942, UISP.

  23.Sears interview by Senn, 5, MJES.

  24.Sears interview by Senn, 12–13, MJES.