parties featuring a Trio Elétrico, a band playing on a truck with a high-powered
sound system.
Samba continued to evolve during the 20th century, and led to several other
genres, one of which is the samba-canção, or samba song. This slower version
of the samba became popular in the 1930s and was performed and recorded pri-
marily by white singers such as Noel Rosa and Carmen Miranda, one of Hol-
lywood’s biggest stars in the 1940s, and one of the first Brazilian musicians to
introduce Americans to Brazilian popular musical culture. Another development
was the bossa nova , or new style of samba, that developed in the late 1950s with composers and performers such as Antônio Carlos Jobim, João Gilberto, and
Venícius de Morais. This genre blended the samba with the harmonic sophisti-
cation of American jazz, brought to Brazil by American servicemen in World
War II and by Brazilian musicians who performed in the United States, most
notably Garoto, the guitarist in Carmen Miranda’s band. Bossa nova became
Miranda, Carmen
Carmen Miranda (1909–1955) was one of Hollywood’s biggest stars in the
1940s, and introduced Americans to Brazilian popular music culture. Known
as the Brazilian bombshell, Miranda was actually born in Portugal. In the late
1920s, Miranda got her fi rst recording contract and became one of Brazil’s
most popular singers. She made seven movies in Brazil before she was discov-
ered by the American Lee Schubert, who brought her to the United States to
star on Broadway.
Miranda’s success in New York led to her starring in Technicolor produc-
tions, at fi rst without speaking parts and later as an exotic, tropical pan-Latina
woman. She was the most popular woman in fi lm in the 1940s, and for a time
one of the highest paid women in America. She lost some of her luster by the
end of the 1940s, and was cast in a series of black-and-white B-movies with
the likes of Groucho Marx, Jerry Lewis, and Dean Martin. As her career pro-
gressed, she moved away from her Brazilian musical roots.
Further Reading
Garcia, Thomas George Caracas. “American Views of Brazilian Musical Cul-
ture: Villa-Lobos’s Magdalena and Brazilian Popular Music.” The Journal of
Popular Culture 37, no. 4 (May 2004): 634–47.
Thomas George Caracas Garcia
62
|
Brazil
very popular among the cultural elite, and became an important part of jazz rep-
ertoire outside of Brazil; many bossa nova hits became jazz standards and are
still popular today.
African influences—the use of percussion and complex rhythms—are strongly
present in other northeastern musical traditions as well. One of these traditions is
the Afro-Brazilian religion called Candomblé. Originally the product of African
slaves, it developed in the state of Bahia into a pan-tribal religious tradition that
includes possession rituals in which music, exclusively provided by singing and
percussion, is vital. Another African-derived music is that of capoeira, a dance
and martial art. Slaves were not allowed to practice fighting, which was disguised
as a dance form, accompanied by percussion and a musical bow, the berimbau. It
is very popular in Bahia, where it originated, as well as the rest of Brazil, and has
even generated a strong international following. Other Afro-Brazilian music of note
includes afoxé, a music associated with the Candomblé tradition and important in
Bahian Carnaval, maracatú, a samba derivative popular in the state of Pernambuco
during Carnaval, and a more recent hybrid, samba-reggae, which fuses Jamaican
reggae and ska with samba.
Instrumental Music
In terms of instrumental music, choro is the most important Brazilian popular
genre. Developed in the 1870s in Rio de Janeiro, choro originally was an impro-
visatory style of playing popular European dances popular by amateurs, as well
as the gatherings at which it was played. Musicians of the day, moving toward a
national popular music, adapted the polka, waltz, schotische and other European
dances to their tastes. This adaptation included influences from African-derived
music, most notably rhythm. The polka, for example, assimilated African rhythms
to a large degree; this dance was adapted to the point that it became distinct from
the European polka and was known simply as choro. The typical ensemble for
choro performance included a wind instrument, guitars of various sizes, and per-
cussion. The heart and soul of the tradition was the roda de choro, or choro circle,
a social and musical gathering in which amateur musicians would play for sheer
pleasure. Choro later evolved into a professional genre, filling the need for music
in the nascent entertainment industry by the early 20th century. The professional
choro diminished in popularity through the 1940s, but it never disappeared. Other
Brazilian genres, most notably samba, surpassed choro in popularity. It saw a se-
ries of revivals, first in the 1960s and later in the 1980s. More recently, choro has
enjoyed a tremendous wave of popularity; musicians playing in choro ensembles
throughout Brazil, and in major cities choro once again can be heard regularly, both
in public performance and in the more intimate roda de choro.
Brazil | 63
Regional Music
There are many regional genres in Brazil, some of which have assumed national
importance. Among this regional music is música nordestina, or music from the
Northeast, a large geographic region with economic, cultural, and social realities
much different than in Rio and the Southeast. This region is one of the poorest in
Brazil, and the many Nordestinos migrated to the Southeast in search of a better
standard of living, taking with them their musical traditions; music from the North-
east can be heard today throughout Brazil. Although samba was originally from
the northeast state of Bahia, where it continues to be the most important genre,
there are other northeastern genres that are not derived from samba, and that have
a different rhythmic and instrumental makeup. Although samba is dominated by
the batucada, or drums, other northeastern genres use the accordion and guitars, with a different style of percussion and rhythmic component than samba. A dance
music that developed in the northeastern state of Pernambuco, forró, is one of the most important of these genres. This music combines Portuguese and African influences, is danced by couples, and remains very popular throughout Brazil. Other
regional genres include the baião , the development of which mirrored that of forró
in the state of Bahia, frevo , a northeastern Carnaval music, and de repente, an improvised blues-like music that most often takes the form of a competition in which
two performers try to best each other within a strongly defined stylistic framework.
Many dance forms, popular both in Brazil and abroad, are also from the Northeast,
notably lambada , which enjoyed a boom in Brazil and internationally in the 1980s.
Another popular music tradition that has regional roots and has become im-
portant throughout the country is música sertaneja, Brazil’s version of American country music, and often referred to as truck driver or cowboy music. Its name
com
es from the sertão, the backlands in Brazil away from the Atlantic coast, today
associated with the interior of the Northeast and Central Brazil. This music is part
of a larger movement that embraced the American cowboy lifestyle, and perform-
ers (usually singing in duets) dress in American West influenced clothing and sing
about themes similar to country music in the United States, often including rodeo.
Just as American country music became important nationally, sertanejo is popular
throughout Brazil, in both urban and rural settings.
MPB, Rock, Funk, and Rap
Among the most important popular music in Brazil is Música Popular Brasileira
(MPB). This music developed from tropicália , an artistic movement from the 1960s
that encompassed poetry, theater, and music, and that often reflected a degree of
political protest during the military dictatorship (1964–1985). The music of MPB
64
|
Brazil
reflects the many influences on Brazilian music: Portuguese melodic style, bossa
nova, samba, and samba-canção, as well as American rock ‘n’ roll, and jazz. MPB
is not a distinct genre, but rather a name given to a wide range of musical styles that
reflect the same esthetic, generally built around a voice and a guitar. Among the
most popular and important performers of MPB are Gilberto Gil, Caetano Veloso,
Elis Regina, and Milton Nascimento, among many others.
Rock ‘n’ roll is another important Brazilian genre, again with roots outside of
Brazil. Although American rock reached Brazil in the 1950s, there was no signifi-
cant Brazilian rock movement until the 1960s, and this usually included a mixing
of rock, jazz, MPB, and other Brazilian music with the American sound and in-
strumentation. Among the first bands to enjoy success in rock were Jovem Guarda
(The Young Guard) and Os Mutantes (The Mutants), whose lead singer, Rita Lee,
was a leading force in the 1970s and continues to be one of the biggest names in
Brazilian rock. The 1980s saw rock’s biggest commercial success, with bands such
as Barão Vermelho (The Red Baron) and Legião Urbana (Urban Legion) attaining
Regina, Elis
Elis Regina Carvalho Costa (1945–1982) was an important fi gure in the MPB
(Brazilian popular music) movement. During her 1965 televised performance
at the fi rst Festival of Brazilian Popular Music, Elis won over the audience with
her unique interpretation of “Arrastão” and became much sought after by MPB
composers, many of whom achieved recognition because of Elis’s interpreta-
tion of their songs. She signed her fi rst recording contract at 14, and released
her fi rst album the next year. Following a 1965 performance, Elis released the
album Dois na Bossa with Jair Rodrigues. In the same year, Elis and Rodrigues co-
hosted the important O Fino da Bossa, a television program that brought atten-
tion to new musicians. Elis toured internationally in 1969, and in 1974 released
with Antonio Carlos Jobim her most popular album, Elis e Tom. As a performer,
Elis was known for her range and spirituous delivery; her perfectionism and in-
tensity earned her the nicknames of Hurricane and Little Pepper. Although Elis
died tragically in 1982 following a cocaine overdose, her popularity and reputa-
tion as Brazil’s greatest female singer continue to the present.
Further Reading
McGowan, Chris and Ricardo Pessanha. The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova,
and the Popular Music of Brazil. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009.
Rebecca Stuhr
Brazil | 65
national and international acclaim. The 1990s saw continued commercial success
with the Mamonas Assassinas (Killer Breasts), who sold millions of CDs before
a tragic plane crash killed all five members of the band. The rock scene in Brazil
expanded to include derivatives such as heavy metal, punk, and others, and many
rock bands started their own record labels.
Rap and hip-hop also occupy an important place in Brazilian popular music,
reflecting many of the same cultural forces that led to the development of these
genres in the United States. An important music tradition with a similar esthetic
is funk, or funk carioca (the name coming from the nickname of Rio natives,
cariocas ), a dance music that is very popular among the youth of Rio de Janeiro.
It is usually heard in a dance party setting known as baile funk, or funk dance.
Funk carioca blends Brazilian and Afro-Brazilian rhythm and percussion with
sampling and other electronic technologies to create a new, driving sound. It
is sung, rapped, or instrumental, often blending all of these. The dance parties
at which this music is popular tend to be violent and sexual, reflecting the lyr-
ics of a great deal of this music. Funk carioca has become popular outside of
Brazil as well, particularly in Europe, where many recordings were made since
the year 2000.
Whereas baile funk and funk carioca are part of the contemporary popular music
scene in Rio de Janeiro, in other urban areas rap and hip-hop are important, most
importantly in São Paulo. As is the case with funk, young people at the lower part
of the socioeconomic spectrum are the primary practitioners of rap. Most partici-
pants are of color, and much rap is associated with favela, or slum, culture. As is
the case with rap in Europe, Brazilian rappers initially copied American models,
later adapting the music to their own tastes, including local ideas of rhythm and per-
cussion. This copying included dress, mannerism, and performance style. A large
underground movement developed in the 1980s, which included a number of inde-
pendent labels, using new recording technologies and allowing rappers to establish
themselves. Both rap and funk have also been influenced by a drug culture and the
drug trade, since drug lords control the favelas that are the origins of most of this
music and the live events at which they are performed. As was the case with rock
artists in Brazil, many rappers started their own labels, leading to the strong indie
label scene in Brazil today.
Further Reading
Béhague, Gerard. “Rap, Reggae, Rock, or Samba: The Local and the Global in Brazil-
ian Popular Music (1985–95).” Latin American Music Review 27, no. 1 (Spring/Summer
2006): 79–90.
Crook, Larry N. “Black Consciousness, Samba Reggae, and the Re-Africanization of
Carnival Music in Brazil.” World of Music 35, no. 2 (1993): 90–106.
Livingston-Isenhour, Tamara Elena, and Thomas George Caracas Garcia. Choro: A So-
cial History of a Brazilian Popular Music. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
66
|
Brazil
McGowan, Chris and Ricardo Pessanha. The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova and
the Popular Music of Brazil. Revised and expanded edition. Philadelphia, PA: Temple Uni-
versity Press, 2009.
Perrone, Charles. Masters of Contemporary Brazilian Song: MPB 1965–1985. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1989.
Perrone, Charles A. and Christopher Dunn, editors. Brazilian Popular Music and Glo-
balization. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Tinhorão, José Ramos. História social da música popular brasileira. Lisbon: C
aminho,
1990.
Thomas George Caracas Garcia
Bugalu. See Boogaloo .
C
Cajón
The cajón is an idiophone or percussive wooden box of Afro-Peruvian origin. The
sides and the back of the box use half- to three-quarter-inch thick wood while a thin-
ner sheet of plywood is used for the head or tapa. A 10- or 12-millimeter sound hole
is cut in the back. The top edges of the front wooden piece are nailed loosely to the
sides of the box to allow the wood to vibrate as the player, who sits on top of the box,
hits it with the palm of his hands or his fingers. The cajón has many different sonori-
ties and percussive pitches and timbers, although two basic sounds are key to the
Afro-Peruvian rhythms that accompanies: a deep bass sound that is obtained by hit-
ting the center of the drum’s head, and a more high-pitch tone obtained by slapping
its top corners. Sometimes the cajón is played by hitting its sides and back as well.
The cajón is said to have originated in the port of Lima as slaves sat and
played on wooden crates used to transport merchandise. Others believe that this
A street procession of cajón players during the Fifth International Festival of the Peru-
vian Cajón in Lima, Peru, 2012. (AP/Wide World Photos)
67
68
|
Calypso
drum is a descendant of box drums found in some parts of Africa and the Ca-
ribbean. It is very much used in Afro-Peruvian musical styles such as tondero,
marinera, landó, festejo, etc. Its popularity has spread throughout the Americas,
especially in Cuba, where it is associated with the rumba . While Peruvian cajón generally has a rectangular shape, Cuban cajón has an octagonal shape and is
smaller in size. Introduced to Spanish flamenco by guitarist Paco de Lucía in
the 1790s, it is very much used in contemporary arrangements and settings of
flamenco musical styles.
Further Reading
Feldman, Heidi Carolyn. Black Rhythms of Peru: Reviving African Musical Heritage in
the Black Pacific. Middletown: CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2006.
Raquel Paraíso
Calypso
Calypso is a music and dance genre popular throughout the Caribbean and the
Encyclopedia of Latin American Popular Music Page 14
