Encyclopedia of Latin American Popular Music
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the final decades of the 19th century. Some say it was born from the rumba yambú,
played on cajónes (box drums), though it is now usually played on tumbadoras .
As a dance, guaguanc ó is a pantomimic sexual pursuit between a man and
woman. As they dance, tension builds since the man will inevitably attempt a
vacunao (a pelvic thrust) or other sexually symbolic movement that the woman
playfully rejects.
The musical form of a guaguancó is characterized by an introduction of non-
sense syllables called the diana. It is sung by a soloist and explores the scale tones
before transitioning to the inspiración (canto), often with Spanish décima poetic structure and simple harmonization. The final section (known as estribillo , mon-
tuno , or coro ) is usually done in a faster tempo, uses leader group alternation singing, and features the dancers along with quinto drum improvisation.
Popular music often references guaguancó by using the characteristic melody of
the tumbadoras and the clave or guagua pattern. The drum melody does not usually align with clave in traditional rumba , but in some popular versions it does. Examples include “Quimbara” by Celia Cruz or “Mi Guaguanco” by Mongo Santama-
ria. Los Van Van regularly uses guaguancó, as in the piece “Consuelate Como Yo.”
Further Reading
Sublette, Ned. Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chi-
cago Review Press, 2004.
Nolan Warden
Guajeo
In Cuban popular music, a guajeo is a repeated, often syncopated, two-bar or four-
bar phrase played by a melodic instrument and it functions as an accompanimen-
tal ostinato, which interlocks with the clave . The musical function of the guajeo is twofold: it both punctuates the rhythm by lining up with the clave and outlines the
harmony by emphasizing the chord note members through a temporal distribution
over the said measures. The earliest guajeos originated from patterns played on
180 | Guajira
plucked string instruments, like the tres , but over time they were incorporated into
the holding patterns of other instruments, most notably the piano, where the latter
adopted patterns that were derived directly from the tres. The term is thus synony-
mous with the term montuno . Within different instrumental combinations, differ-
ent instruments or groups of instruments may be assigned the guajeo. In the early
son recordings by sextetos and septetos de son, the guajeo is played by the tres. In the context of charanga orchestras, the violins will play the repeated pattern, and
in the fabric of the gran orquesta, the pattern may be given to the saxophones in harmony. The guajeo originated in folkloric styles like the guajira , but through its appropriation into more popular styles, it has become the backbone of harmonic
patterns used in piano styles for salsa and Latin jazz.
Further Reading
Mauleon, Rebecca. The Salsa Guidebook. New York: Sher Music Co., 1993.
George Torres
Guajira
The guajira is a genre of Cuban popular song whose stylistic roots originated from
the broader complex of musica guajira or country or peasant music, which was cul-
tivated among the campesinos (farmers or rural peasants) in the Cuban countryside.
Early guajiras were written in a 6/8 and 3/4 meter that resulted in a sesquiáltera
rhythm. The sung texts were frequently about the rural countryside and sung in
rhymed décima stanzas. By the late 19th century a newer style of Urban theater
or salon guajira was developed by Jorge Anckermann. The texts, written by urban
composers, provided a romanticized view of country life, and this newer style of
guajira used a bipartite structure (minor-key first half, followed by a major-key
second half) that would influence subsequent guajira composers. By the 1930s the
guajira was merged with the dance-oriented, duple-meter son to create a hybrid
known as the guajira-son . This style, sometimes known as guajira de salón, was
made extremely popular by artists such Guillermo Portabales and Ramón Veloz.
The most iconic of Cuban popular songs, Guantanamera , is a guajira-son . Most
guajira-sons revolve around one chord progression, often I-IV-V in major, or a
variation around descending Phrygian tetrachord in the minor, i-bVII-VI-V.
Further Reading
Manuel, Peter. “The ‘Guajira’ between Cuba and Spain: A Study in Continuity and
Change.” Latin American Music Review 25, no. 2 (2004): 137–62.
George Torres
Guaracha
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181
Guaracha
The guaracha is a Cuban musical genre of singing and dancing loosely associated
with the origins of dancism (esthetics related to dance and its derivations) of the
19th century, with some types of songs and with an intergeneric character, due to
the mixture of genres and styles.
A large part of the bibliography on guaracha recognizes its Hispanic roots and
attributed qualities to be sung and danced. Some sources suggest its presence in
Cuba since the 16th or 18th century, in the brothels and bars of the Havana har-
bor. Another hypothesis sets its origin in Spain during the 18th century under the
form of Andalusian tap dancing, but the most well-recognized dates go back to
the early 19th century and some suggest it emerged in the blackface theater of the
19th century.
Guarachas were originally performed in urban festivities including serenades,
krewes, and routes. In ballrooms, pieces of guaracha were sung over the melody
of the contradanza , which were composed from old guarachas. Diaries from the
independent wars of the 19th century referred to the existence of camp guaracha
and guaracha is also found in the trova anthology of the country. It was an es-
sential element of comedy and blackface theater, where it replaced the jacaras or
picaresque songs inserted in tonadillas, sainetes, and entremeses from the golden
century of Spanish theater represented in Cuba.
Up until the 19th century, some guarachas could be very close to dancism or
song depending on the lyrical performance approach. The strong presence of basic
rhythmic-accented patterns ( cinquillo , tresillo, or the habaneroso model) defined the stage guaracha as the synthesis of some species converging in Cuba during the
age of blackface theater, especially son , danzon, and bolero . Theater guaracha was originally conceived in 6/8 meter and later the binary meter was regularized and
standardized. Other times, rhythmic combinations took place (6/8 or 3/4, with 2/4
beat measures) in an unregulated order, which resulted in more dynamic contrasts
of rhythm. Its height of popularity came after the second half of the 19th century,
when guaracha brought together a number of elements already present in the genre
including its popular character, humorous and ironic language, and song. The guara-
cha was performed by popular characters of blackface theater such as the negrito or
little black boy, the mulatta, or the Galician. The lyrics of the guaracha usually had a humorous, ironic, or satirical tone, with the use of stylistic devices such as mispro-nounced words, wordplays, allegories, personification, and double entendre to mask
topics such as sex and politics that were historically censored.
As son became popular in the first decades of the 20th century, trova became
a second branch o
f guaracha perpetuating a pattern of guaracha-son with the ad-
dition of montuno . Guaracha was performed by septets and groups and favored a
182 | Guatemala
dancing guaracha. The generic type of guaracha-son assumes a faster tempo and
the lyrics are more humorous and picaresque than in son, while the rasgueado of
the accompanying guitar seems closer to tanguillo style performed by trios and
other string-based ensembles. Miguel Matamoros, Ñico Saquito, and the duet Los
Compadres established new styles of guarachas in the 20th century as did Faustino
Oramas, also known as “El guayabero,” and Pedro Luis Ferrer.
Further Reading
Robbins, James. “The Cuban ‘Son’ as Form, Genre, and Symbol.” Latin American Music
Review/Revista de Música Latinoamericana 11, no. 2 (1990): 182–200.
Roy, Maya. Cuban Music: From Son and Rumba to the Buena Vista Social Club and
Timba Cubana. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2002.
Sublette, Ned. Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chi-
cago Review Press, 2004.
Neris González and Liliana Casanella
Guataca. See Cencerro.
Guatemala
Guatemala is a Central American country with an indigenous community of Mayan
peoples that comprises more than half of the native population. The traditional
music of Guatemala derives from the two distinct cultures of the country: the La-
dino tradition and the Mayan culture.
The Ladino, or Spanish-speaking population ( Creole ), is mainly concentrated in
urban areas along the southern coast and the eastern lowlands. Their music demon-
strates a strong Hispanic influence and incorporates Latin American and American
styles. The main instrument of Guatemala is the marimba , a popular folk instru-
ment of African origin. The marimba is used for festive dancing, procession, and
dance drums. The marimba sencilla was formed with the addition of cajones ar-
monicos, or wooden box resonators. The keyboard of the marimba was enlarged to
reach six-and-a-half octaves on the chromatic marimba grande. The marimba de
tecomates, although less widely used than previously, is still sometimes played as
a solo instrument, and together with the chirimía, the xul, and the tamborón .
The most popular musical style is the son guatemalteco ( son chapín ), which is
the national dance of Guatemala. Son guatemalteco is played by marimba ensem-
bles of 6- to 12-string instruments, guitarillas ( tiples ), and maracas . The music is comprised of a son rhythm with zapateado , or stamping, like the Spanish flamenco.
The stanzas contain four octosyllabic lines, and the music is characterized by triadic
Guatemala
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183
harmony and 6/8 meter. Son guatemalteco and popular music form part of the ma-
rimba repertoire. Corridos are also enjoyed in many parts of Guatemala, played by 6- to 12-string guitars, guitarilla, arpa , and marimba. The songs are similar to the corridos of Mexico, and the subject matter is often topical and narrative in nature.
Other frequently played styles include canciones rancheras and huapangos , in addition to vals , marcha , and international genres.
Garífuna musicians, part of the black Caribbean population who are descended
from the Arawak and Carib Indians and African slaves, live mainly on the Carib-
bean coast. Their traditional music ensemble consists of the garaón, a wooden
membranophone, sísira, the spiked gourd rattle, and occasionally the weiwintu, a
conch-shell trumpet, but many variations exist, which include the electric guitar,
electric bass, batería , congas, and sometimes a trumpet. Ensembles frequently perform puntas, parrandas, and calypsos. Additionally, Garífuna musicians play reg-
gae and rock music, and combine rock with traditional rhythms to form punta rock.
Popular genres with elements of local or traditional styles such as corridos,
pasillos, son, vals, along with other Spanish American genres may be heard in upper-class homes in Guatemala. Other popular styles today include the fox-trot,
mazurka (or ranchera ), the pasodoble, the polka, and the schottische . Since the 1920s, African rhythms like danza ( habanera ) , merengue, and samba have also been enjoyed in the country. International styles are currently popular in urban
areas, as they are played in nightclubs, restaurants, and hotels for tourists and city-
dwelling Ladinos.
The Guatemalan rock group Alux Nahual created a different type of music than
the typical Latin American band, one that was not based on Afro-Caribbean rhyth-
mic patterns. After the advent of disco-móviles in the 1970s, music from the United
States was widely available, prompting many Guatemalan groups to stop copying
American styles and find a niche playing tropical music, notably the merengue. So-
cial unrest in the 1970s and 1980s made it difficult for bands to survive, as concerts
were sometimes interrupted by the police who searched and sometimes arrested
members of the audience. Alux Nahual was sometimes criticized because the group
did not play tropical music nor fall neatly into the category of rock en español , but
the band provided an important link between pop and rock in Central America. The
highpoint of the group’s international recognition came in 1995 when they played a
sold-out show in the Los Angeles Palace. Ricardo Arjona, a Guatemalan pop singer,
has also gained popularity in recent years, as well as two Grammy Awards, the 2006
Latin Grammy for Best Male Pop Vocal Album and Best Latin Pop Album in 2007.
Further Reading
Cortes, Alfonso Arrivillaga. “La Musica Tradicional Garifuna En Guatemala.” Latin
American Music Review (Revista de Música Latinoamericana) 11, no. 2 (1990): 251–80.
184 | Güiro
Garfias, Robert. “The Marimba of Mexico and Central America.” Latin American Music
Review (Revista de Música Latinoamericana) 4, no. 2 (1983): 203–28.
O’Brien, Linda L. “Marimbas of Guatemala: the African Connection.” World of Music
25, no. 2 (1982): 99–104.
Pacini Hernandez, Deborah, Héctor D. Fernández l’Hoeste, and Eric Zolov. Rockin’ Las
Américas: The Global Politics of Rock in Latino America. Pittsburgh: University of Pitts-
burgh Press, 2004.
Schechter, John Mendell. Music in Latin American Culture: Regional Traditions. New
York: Schirmer Books, 1999.
Caitlin Lowery
Güira. See Güiro .
Güiro
The güira and güiro are the names given to a range of Latin American percussion
instruments of the scraper variety. Güiros are cylindrical notched idiophones that
are made in many different sizes, but most are roughly about a foot in length and
about four to five inches in diameter. Notches or perforations run along one side of
the instrument, and these indentations are scraped with either a wooden stick ( pua )
or a small metal comb.
Güiros come in several varieties found in many parts of Latin America, with
distinctive types coming most notably from Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Domini-
can Republic. The Cuban and Puerto Rican types are made from a gourd ( güiro )
and have notched ridges. Both of these types have two holes on the nonridged side
of the instrument that the player uses to hold the instrument. The Dominican type
is traditionally made from a she
et of metal, which is perforated using a small nail
with small indentations. There may be hundreds of these indentations in one güiro.
The sheet is rolled outward so that the perforations protrude from the instrument’s
surface, and it is then finally rolled into a cylinder.
The güiro is found throughout Latin America and is used in both rural and urban
popular music. It is also known as calabazo, guayo, güícharo ralladera, rascador,
and rayo.
Further Reading
Mauleón, Rebeca. Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music
Co., 1993.
Orovio, Helio. Cuban Music from A to Z. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
George Torres
Guitar | 185
Guitar
The guitar and guitar-type instruments in Latin America consist of many regional
varieties, which are based on European models that came to the Americas during
the colonial period. Many forms of popular music rely on the traditional European
guitar of Spanish origin, but many other forms make extensive use of regional va-
rieties that have retained their unique folk-like quality within the realm of popular
music. After some 500 years of development, and with the addition of electronic
instruments, the sound of guitar-type instruments remains the heart and soul of
Latin American popular music.
The early history of the guitar in Latin America begins with the cultural encoun-
ter that occurred when Spaniards invaded Mesoamerica in the early 16th century.
Early chronicles in the 16th century attest to the popularity of vihuela (an early
forerunner to the guitar), and the guitar in Mexico. By the end of the 16th century,
accounts of guitars in South America document the widespread appropriation of
plucked stringed instruments from Spain and Portugal. While the standard guitar
of its day was favored by elites among the more urban centers, in the provinces and
rural areas guitars were being adopted by the native population and refashioned to
suit the tastes, needs, and resources of each region. As a result, many variants of
guitars were adapted by the local cultures. The continued developments in instru-