Marx- A Complete Introduction

by Gill Hands

In a fun survey, done in 2014, the Wall Street Journal gave Thomas Piketty’s Capital in the Twenty-first Century the accolade of being the most unread book of the summer. Based on evidence from e-readers, they believe most people only get to page 26!

  http://online.wsj.com/articles/the-summers-most-unread-book-is-1404417569

  As Terry Eagleton points out in Why Marx Was Right, the general view of the ‘working class’ as people who produce commodities and who do physical work in factories or mines is incorrect; Marx defined the proletariat as those forced to sell their labour power, which includes all those working in service industries, for example. So although the structure of society has changed superficially, and classes are merging into each other, class divisions have not disappeared and the issue of workers not being in control of their conditions of labour is still a valid one, especially if we look at global society. The sweatshops of the Victorian era have not disappeared, they have just been moved to other countries, so there is now a virtually unseen global proletariat.

  There is a growing movement against globalization of industry and exploitation of workers in countries in the Third World, capitalism has been accused of ‘chasing poverty around the world’; as soon as workers in one country receive fair pay and rights then the products become too expensive, and so production is moved to another area of the world. At present in the UK, we are buying in many manufactured goods from China, Laos and Indonesia, for example. This means that the proletariat exist outside our culture and society and become almost invisible. Many Marxists are a part of the campaign against globalization, which also includes religious and ecological groups.

  ‘The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connexions everywhere.’

  Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 1848, Chapter I

  http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007

  Eco Marxism (or Eco Socialism as it is also known) is a growing trend as people concerned about despoilment of the environment look to synthesize Marxist ideas on industrialization, ownership of property, and the role of the state with the ideal of preserving the natural environment and slowing global warming.

  ‘Capitalist production, by collecting the population in great centres, and causing an ever-increasing preponderance of town population, on the one hand concentrates the historical motive power of society; on the other hand, it disturbs the circulation of matter between man and the soil, i.e., prevents the return to the soil of its elements consumed by man in the form of food and clothing; it therefore violates the conditions necessary to lasting fertility of the soil.’

  Karl Marx, Capital, Volume I, 1867, Chapter 15

  http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch15.htm#a245

  John Bellamy Foster (1953–) has written extensively on Eco Marxism, some of his more recent titles being Marx’s Ecology – materialism and nature in 2000, The Ecological Rift: Capitalism's War on the Earth (with Brett Clark and Richard York) in 2010, and What Every Environmentalist Needs to Know about Capitalism in 2011 (with Fred Magdoff).

  Spotlight

  Ecology joke: What do you get if you cross an Eco Marxist with direct action? Arrested!

  PHILOSOPHY

  Marx is also relevant to today’s world when we look at his philosophy. There are two main philosophical points to be considered:

  1 Human nature is not a fixed thing but alters with social and economic conditions. This means that society can be changed by altering the economic system. Nobody was aware of this before Marx brought it to our attention. However, the history of the twentieth century has shown that it is not as easy as Marx believed to create the society of equals that he thought could develop. The fact that communist states have been riddled with inequalities does not mean that Marx was entirely wrong, but perhaps he was more optimistic about the flexibility of human nature than most people.

  2 The most important part of Marx’s philosophy was the understanding he gave us about the nature of freedom. Under capitalism we appear to be free but because economic conditions control our work, religion, politics and ideas, we cannot control our lives or society. Depression is one of the top three causes of absence from work in the United Kingdom; could this be a sign of alienation? Of course, this is a supposition which is not easily proved, but according to surveys carried out by National Opinion Polls (NOP) in 2006 just 36 per cent of British people now feel ‘very happy’; in 1957 the figure was 52 per cent. People are less happy than they were 50 years ago, despite an increase in material possessions. The fact that we even acknowledge the possibility of this alienation is because Marx introduced the idea. People are now much more aware of the social and economic influences which shape their lives and this is due, in part, to Marx who first brought it to our attention.

  The future

  The world developed in ways that Marx could not have predicted in just a hundred years. In the early 1980s, few people could foresee the phenomenal rise of the power of home computers, smart phones, the internet; the extent to which technological advances would change aspects of our society in a short space of time. There are signs within the music industry and publishing that people are taking the means of production into their own hands; technology in the Western world means we can all record our own music and make our own books. The development of new technology will affect the structure of society yet again in ways we cannot be sure of right now.

  To try to look at the development of Marxism over the next hundred years would be an exercise in science fiction. We cannot predict how technology will change our society. Perhaps work will cease to exist as a result of technological advances, perhaps society will be destroyed by some disaster and we will return to primitive communism.

  The revolution Marx predicted never took place, but does that mean it will never happen? Marxists would argue that as long as 10 per cent of the population hold 99 per cent of the wealth then there is no equality. There are still numerous Marxist groups in the world who believe that as long as society remains dominated by capitalism, there must be a revolution. As long as the ideas of Marx are still alive in the minds of people throughout the world, this must be a possibility.

  Key ideas

  Critical theory In Marxist terms it is a way of looking at the works and tradition of Marx and taking into account the varying criticisms that have been made of his methods and of Marxism itself.

  Cultural Marxism A form of Marxism that takes into account the role of the media, art and culture into analysis of society.

  Deconstruction A method of reading texts based on the theories of Derrida. The idea is to look for inconsistencies and reveal the true meaning in what is written.

  Economic determinism The theory that the economic structure leads the development of society, politics and history.

  Frankfurt School A school of social theory that was set up in Frankfurt and was critical of orthodox Marxist thought as promoted within the Soviet Union.

  Hegemony The subtle way in which the ruling class persuade the population to accept their view of the world as right and natural.

  Marxian Often used with reference to economics, this is a school of thought that believes that Marx’s way of analysing the economy is valid and independent of the need for revolution or class change.

  Postmodern A flexible term with many applications, literally meaning ‘after the modern’. A way of looking at the world that takes into account the huge social changes that have happened due to technological advances, mass media and consumer society.

  Relativism The belief that knowledge and values are only relative rather than absolute. In other words, something can only be declared to be true in relation to something else.

  Structural Marxist A Marxist who follows a structural approach to Marxism as devised by Louis Althusser.

  Things to remember

  • Numero
us schools of Marxism flourished in the twentieth century.

  • Marxism goes in and out of fashion in academic circles.

  • Many people believe that Marx is out of date and not relevant to today’s postmodernist world.

  • Others believe he is relevant because of the inequalities in society, and revolution could still occur.

  • Marx’s main contribution was to show us that human nature is not fixed and that even when people believe they are free, they are being controlled by outside influences of some kind.

  • Society is changing rapidly in ways that Marx could never have predicted and technological advances mean that it is difficult to predict what may come next.

  Fact check

  1 Which book did Lenin consider to be the first work of the mature Marx?

  a The Communist Manifesto

  b Das Kapital

  c The Poverty of Philosophy

  d The Grundrisse

  2 Who wrote The Philosophy of Marx in 1991?

  a Étienne Balibar

  b Antonio Gramsci

  c Max Horkheimer

  d Herbert Marcuse

  3 Who invented the concept of hegemony?

  a Max Horkheimer

  b Jürgen Habermas

  c Antonio Gramsci

  d George A. Cohen

  4 Who defined critical theory in an essay in 1937?

  a Max Horkheimer

  b Herbert Marcuse

  c Jean Baudrillard

  d Jacques Derrida

  5 Where did the Praxis School begin?

  a Russia

  b China

  c Cuba

  d Yugoslavia

  6 Who put forward the idea that we have reached ‘the end of history’?

  a Jean-Francois Lyotard

  b Gilles Deleuze

  c Francis Fukuyama

  d Jacques Derrida

  7 Who wrote about ‘antagonisms’ in the hegemony in 1985?

  a Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe

  b Gilles Deleuze

  c Jacques Derrida and Jean-François Lyotard

  d Max Horkheimer

  8 Who wrote that there is no real scientific way of testing whether Marx’s assertions are true or false?

  a Karl Popper

  b Max Horkheimer

  c Jacques Derrida

  d Ernesto Laclau

  9 Who wrote Marx’s Ecology?

  a Terry Eagleton

  b John Bellamy Foster

  c Slavoj Žižek

  d Karl Popper

  Dig deeper

  Alex Callinicos, Against Postmodernism: A Marxist Critique, Polity Press 1990

  Terry Eagleton, Why Marx Was Right, Yale University Press 2011

  Quentin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (eds.), Gramsci: Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Lawrence & Wishart 1998

  Steven Jones, Antonio Gramsci (Routledge Critical Thinkers), Routledge 2006

  John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: An Introduction, Routledge 2012

  Glenn Ward, Understand Postmodernism: Teach Yourself, Hodder Education 2010

  Timeline 1750–1917

  Events in world history Events in the life of Marx

  c.1750 Start of the Industrial Revolution in Britain.

  1775–83 American War of Independence.

  1789–94 French Revolution.

  1800–15 Napoleonic Wars. 1818 Karl Marx born.

  c.1830 Industrialization of Europe begins.

  1835 Attends University of Bonn.

  1836 Attends University of Berlin.

  1841 Thesis accepted at University of Jena.

  1842 Works as a journalist.

  1843 Marries Jenny Von Westphalen and moves to Paris.

  Becomes a Communist.

  1845 Expelled from France and moves to Belgium.

  1848 Riots in Paris, Vienna and parts of Germany and Italy. 1848 Communist Manifesto published.

  1849 Banished from Germany. Moves to London.

  1851–52 Louis Napoleon declares Second French Republic.

  1859 Critique of Political Economy published.

  1861–65 American Civil War. 1864 International Workingmen’s Association founded.

  1870 Franco–German War. 1867 First volume of Das Kapital published.

  1871 Paris Commune proclaimed.

  Third French Republic established.

  1881 Wife, Jenny, dies.

  1884 Karl Marx dies.

  1905 First Russian Revolution.

  1914 First World War begins.

  1917 Bolshevik Revolution leads to first ever communist state.

  A summary of Marx’s life

  1818

  Karl Heinrich Marx was born on 5 May at Trier in the Rhine province of Prussia, now Germany. His father was Heinrich Marx, a successful lawyer and his mother, born Henrietta Pressburg, was from Holland. Both of his parents were Jewish but before Karl was born his father was baptized as a Christian, probably as a result of anti-Semitism.

  1830–35

  Marx studied at the school in Trier and was assisted in his studies by Baron Von Westphalen. He became acquainted with the Baron’s beautiful and intelligent daughter, Jenny, who was four years older than himself.

  1835

  In October Marx began his studies at the University of Bonn, where he was supposed to follow courses on Greek and Roman mythology and art history but spent a lot of his time getting drunk and was involved in a duel.

  1836

  Heinrich Marx insisted that his son should move to Berlin University and devote himself to more serious study. He enrolled there in October for courses on law and philosophy. He became engaged to Jenny Von Westphalen.

  1836–39

  Marx became a member of the Young Hegelians, a radical group influenced by the philosophy of Hegel but more materialist in their views. He was greatly influenced by Bruno Bauer, a lecturer in theology who was dismissed from his post in 1839 because he held atheist views. Marx neglected his studies again, this time because he became more actively involved in politics.

  1841

  Marx submitted his thesis to the University of Jena, on the advice of friends, who thought it was more likely to be accepted there than in Berlin. He was greatly influenced by the Essence of Christianity, which was published that year by Ludwig Feuerbach.

  1842

  In January he began writing for the Rheinische Zeitung, a radical paper, and by October he was made the editor. Under his leadership, the paper greatly increased its circulation but it was closed down by the authorities for its criticism of the government and its coverage of social issues.

  1843

  In June he married Jenny, after a seven-year engagement. Her father approved of Marx but the rest of her family totally opposed the marriage. In the winter the couple moved to Paris, where Marx became a Communist and began to associate himself more with working men’s societies. He worked on the German-French Annals, a new paper set up by Arnold Ruge.

  1844

  The Annals closed down, but it was through their publication that Marx met Friedrich Engels, who became his lifelong friend. During this year he wrote The Economic and Social Manuscripts, although these were not published for another hundred years, and a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right.

  1845–47

  Marx was expelled from France and in 1845 he and Jenny moved to Brussels in Belgium. He began to work more closely with Engels and together they wrote The Holy Family, a critique of Bruno Bauer and his followers, and The German Ideology. He also wrote his Theses on Feuerbach.

  1847–48

  He spent much of this year working on the Communist Manifesto with Engels. This was written on behalf of the Communist League, which had developed out of the League of the Just.

  1848–49

  Revolutions began in France, Italy and Austria. Marx moved back to Paris and then back to the Rhineland, where he started writing for the Neue Rheinische Zeitung in January 1849. He wrote several articles d
emanding that a constitutional monarchy should be set up in Prussia. These were seen as dangerous to the government and he was banished, as an alien, in May 1849. In August he moved to London and rejoined the Communist League, but he became dissatisfied with the London Communists. He felt they were urging people to attempt a revolution before they were ready.

  1850–64

  Marx and his family spent these years living in poverty in two rooms in Soho. Engels supported the family financially, but did not have much to contribute until he became a partner in his father’s company in 1864. Marx made most of his money writing articles for the New York Tribune, as its European correspondent. In 1859 his first book was published, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. He spent much of his time researching in the British Museum Library for his greatest work, Das Kapital.

  1864–67

  The International Workingmen’s Association was founded in 1864, and although Marx was not its leader, he was an important member and drew up the constitution. He attended meetings, several times a week, as a representative of the German council. In 1865 Value, Price and Profit was given as an address to a meeting in Brussels. He was also still spending a lot of time in his studies of economic and social history at the British Museum.

  1867

  Das Kapital, Volume 1, was eventually published after many years of work.

  1868–70

  These years were spent addressing meetings, working for the International Workingmen’s Association and working on the further volumes of Das Kapital.

  1871

  The Paris Commune was proclaimed in April. This was an assembly of left-wing politicians, workers and radical intellectuals set up after the revolution. The Communards’ rule degenerated into a reign of terror and was only defeated after a prolonged series of bloody battles. Marx gave his support to the commune, believing it showed the way forward for communism; this led to arguments in the International Workingmen’s Association. Many members were moderate and wanted to gain workers’ rights through co-operation with the government. They turned against Marx for being too radical. Another faction, led by Mikhail Bakunin, an anarchist, opposed him for not being radical enough. Marx didn’t want to become embroiled in endless internal arguments; he felt these took him away from his studies. Eventually, the International moved to New York and disbanded in 1876.