Cleverlands

by Lucy Crehan

  62 Leanna CR. The missing link in school reform. Stanford Social Innovation Review. Stanford: Stanford University, 2011. Available at: www2.ed.gov/programs/slcp/2011progdirmtg/mislinkinrfm.pdf

  63 Sahlberg P. The most wanted: Teachers and teacher education in Finland. In Lieberman A, Darling-Hammond L (eds.), Teacher Education Around the World: Changing Policies and Practices. New York: Routledge, 2012;1–21.

  64 Norris N, Asplund R, MacDonald B, Schostak J, Zamorski B. An Independent Evaluation of Comprehensive Curriculum Reform in Finland. Helsinki: National Board of Education, 1996; p29.

  65 Savola L. Comparison of the classroom practices of Finnish and Icelandic mathematics teachers. Journal of Mathematics Education at Teachers College 2010;7–13.

  66 Sahlberg P. Finnish Lessons 2.0: What Can the World Learn From Educational Change in Finland. New York: Teachers College Press, 2015.

  67 OECD. TALIS 2013 Results: An International Perspective on Teaching and Learning. Paris: TALIS, OECD publishing, 2014.

  68 Sahlberg P (2015).

  69 Statistics Finland (2011). Population Structure. In Sahlberg P. (2015).

  70 Harju-Luukkainen H, Nissinen K, Sulkunen S, et al. Selvitys maahanmuuttajataustaisten nuorten osaamisesta ja siihen liittyvistä taustatekijöistä PISA 2012 – tutkimuksessa. As reported by the University of Jyväskylä, 2014. Available at: www.jyu.fi/en/news/archive/2014/08/tiedote-2014-08-15-14-56-41-604088

  71 Reischauer EO. Japan: The Story of a Nation. Tokyo: Tuttle, 1981:127.

  72 Benjamin GR. Japanese Lessons: A Year in a Japanese School Through the Eyes of an American Anthropologist and Her Children. New York: NYU Press, 1998.

  73 Quoted in: Tanikawa M. Free to be. 2003. Available at: www.nytimes.com/2003/01/12/education/free-to-be.html?pagewanted=all; 1998.

  74 Morita Y, Taki M, Hata M. Nihon no ijime Bullying in Japan. Toky Kaneko shobo. Available at: http://apjjf.org/-Shoko-YONEYAMA/3001/article.html; 1999.

  75 Yoneyama S, Naito A. Problems with the Paradigm: The School as a Factor in Understanding (Bullying (with special reference to Japan). British Journal of Sociology of Education 2003;24:3:315–30.

  76 Yoneyama S. The Japanese High School: Silence and Resistance. New York: Routledge, 2012.

  77 Preamble to the Fundamental Code of Education, 1872 Government Document, in Children and Youth in History, Item 129. Available at: http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/primary-sources/129

  78 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. The Establishment of Elementary Schools and Attendance. Available at: www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/others/detail/1317264.htm

  79 Ellington L. Japan. California: ABC-CLIO, 2009.

  80 Rosenthal R, Jacobson L. Pygmalion in the classroom. The Urban Review 1968;3(1):16–20.

  81 It has recently been brought to my attention that this study has come under some criticism for its design. A more recent review of research in this area suggests that self-fulfilling prophesies in the classroom do exist, but their effects are smaller than those seen in the famous Rosenathal study: Jussim L, Harber KD. Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2005;9(2);131–55.

  82 Babad EY. Pygmalion in reverse. Journal of Special Education 1977;11:81–90.

  83 Benjamin GR (1997).

  84 Yamamoto Y. Social class and Japanese mothers’ support for young children’s education: A qualitative study. Journal of Early Childhood Research 2015;13(2):165–80.

  85 Kariya T. Education Reform and Social Class in Japan: The Emerging Incentive Divide. New York: Routledge, 2012.

  86 Dang, L. Almost 50% of Japanese women are told they’re ‘causing trouble’ for being pregnant. 2015. Available at: http://nextshark.com/japan-women-pregnant-harassment

  87 Benjamin GR. (1997).

  88 Stigler JW, Hiebert J. The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas From the World’s Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom. New York, NY: Free Press, 1999.

  89 Stevenson HW, Stigler JW. The Learning Gap: Why Our Schools Are Failing and What We Can Learn From Japanese and Chinese Education. New York: Summit Books, 1992.

  90 A similar point is made by the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. National Mathematics Advisory Panel in: Foundations for Success: The Final Report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Washington, DC, US. Department of Education, 2008. Available at: www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final-report.pdf

  91 Two asides for those following this from the perspective of the ‘progressive’ vs ‘traditional’ debate who have been led to believe that Japanese classrooms follow ‘progressive’ pedagogy:

  1. I spoke with a Japanese secondary-school teacher who was at school in the 90s, and was telling me that in her experience, both secondary and elementary teachers just taught the content and then got students to practise it. When I told her that some people in England and America thought that Japan did so well in international tests because the teachers gave children space to create and solve their own problems, and that this was based on their visits to schools, she leaned back in her chair in surprise, and her eyebrows shot up. ‘Really?! Which school did they go to? That’s really strange. Wow.’

  2. The percentage of Japanese elementary school teachers reporting that they frequently used the three often-related teaching practices of small group work, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and projects lasting longer than a week, was the lowest of the countries that took part in TALIS. (TALIS, 2012. Fig 6.3).

  As I’ve implied in the text, based on my interviews, observations and reading, I believe that they use reasoning and problem-solving tasks to good effect in a very structured way, alongside more ‘traditional’ practices like whole class teaching and memorisation.

  92 This analysis is from the blog of Tom Loveless at the Brookings Institution. Available at: www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2014/08/07-new-york-times-math-loveless

  93 Stevenson & Stigler (1992).

  94 OECD. TALIS 2013 Results: An International Perspective on Teaching and Learning. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2014.

  95 Only Mexico, Columbia and Chile have worse student-teacher ratios of all of the OECD and non-OECD countries surveyed. OECD (2015). Education at a Glance 2015: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing, Paris.

  96 Whitman NC. Learning from Japanese Middle School Math Teachers. Phi Delta Kappa Fastbacks 2003;505:7–46.

  97 Catherine Lewis and Ineko Tsuchida. Planned educational change in Japan: the case of elementary science instruction. Journal of Education Policy 1997;12(5):313–31.

  98 Japanese education system – school year and juku. Available at:

  http://members.tripod.com/h_javora/jed3.htm

  99 Weisman, SR. How do Japan’s students do it? They cram. 1992. Available at: www.nytimes.com/1992/04/27/world/how-do-japan-s-students-do-it-they-cram.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm

  100 Bjork C. Local implementation of Japan’s Integrated Studies reform: a preliminary analysis of efforts to decentralise the curriculum. Comparative Education 2009;45(1):23–44.

  101 Kariya T, Rappleye J. The twisted, unintended impacts of globalization on Japanese education. In Hannum E, Park H, Goto Butler Y (eds.) Globalization, Changing Demographics, and Educational Challenges in East Asia, Research in the Sociology of Education. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing; 2010;Vol 17:17–63.

  102 Bjork C. Local implementation of Japan’s Integrated Studies reform: a preliminary analysis of efforts to decentralise the curriculum. Comparative Education 2009:45(1):23–44.

  103 Fish, R. Japan: Recent trends in education reform. 2016. Available at: http://

  asiasociety.org/global-cities-education-network/japan-recent-trends-education-reform

  104 Primary school education only became compulsory in Singapore in 2003. Secondary education is still not compulsory – children only need attend school until they have completed P6, although the vast majority do progress to secondary education and b
eyond.

  105 Unless you took a gamble and applied for the direct admissions scheme, where schools can accept students based on other talents such as music or languages, prior to PLSE results being released.

  106 These change slightly every year. As they are approximations only, they don’t add up to 100%.

  107 Hoh, WK. How David Hoe fought his way to university. 2014. Available at: www.straitstimes.com/singapore/how-david-hoe-fought-his-way-to-university

  108 Said to stand for ‘Single, Desperate and Ugly’ by those who looked down on this programme.

  109 I have drawn on the work of Scott Kaufmann for information on the history of intelligence testing. For a fuller account of this history, see his book Ungifted – Intelligence redefined. (Basic Books, 2013).

  110 This word literally means ‘less advanced in mental, physical, or social development than is usual for one’s age’. The more common understanding of it being a permanent trait developed from the history we are about to explore.

  111 Binet A. Modern ideas about children. Trans. Heisler S. In: Kaufman, SB. Ungifted: Intelligence Redefined. New York: Basic Books, 2013.

  112 Asbury K, Plomin R. G is for Genes – The Impact of Genetics on Education and Achievement. Chichester: Wiley, 2013.

  113 It is actually way more complicated than this – genes and environment interact for a start, but my account is accurate, if simplified. For a proper explanation of all this, read K Asbury and R Plomin’s book G is for Genes – The Impact of Genetics on Education and Achievement, (Chichester, Wiley, 2013).

  114 Asbury and Plomin (2013), op. cit., 92

  115 Singapore is not alone in this, England does it to a lesser extent in areas where grammar schools still exist.

  116 MPs call for rethink of streaming, specialist schools, emphasis on exams. 2016. Available at: www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/mps-call-for-rethink-of/2462490.html; Accessed date: 27th May 2016

  117 Survey on Attitudes & Lifestyle among Primary 4–6 Pupils. Singapore Press Holdings November, 2000. Available at: http://app.msf.gov.sg/portals/0/Summary/publication/SF4-Children.pdf

  118 Singapore Window. Minister’s plea not to belt children. 2000. Available at: www.singapore-window.org/sw00/001127a1.htm

  119 Education Minister Heng Swee Keat is reported as saying, ‘We have to be very thoughtful and we have to think long term, and not just focus on one bit or another bit. This is not how we develop an education policy. You must have the big picture and then you must have all the pieces in place, not just one little piece.’ Mr Heng added that the Education Ministry’s plans are comprehensive and well thought through and have gone through many rounds of analytical and consultation work with students, teachers, parents and employers. Available at: www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/education-policy-has-to/2086914.html

  120 Singapore ‘still world’s most expensive city’. 2016. Available at: www.bbc.

  co.uk/news/business-35765378

  121 Economist Intelligence Unit, ‘Starting well: Benchmarking early education across the world’. Singapore’s preschool system includes some good preschools based on sound curricula principles, but the government is struggling to find enough well-qualified staff to fill the number of positions needed for universal access. This is a recognised problem, and therefore an area of focus for the Singaporean government.

  122 D A Bell. The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015: 126.

  123 Saad, I. MP proposes pilot schools without streaming nor PSLE. 2014. Available at: www.channelnewsasia.com/news/specialreports/parliament/news/mp-proposes-pilot-schools-without-stream/962284.html

  124 Lee Yock Suan, Minister for Education, reported in Straits Times; issue: 14th June 1994.

  125 Youth unemployment in Singapore: an overview. 2013. Available at: www.elmmagazine.eu/articles/youth-unemployment-in-singapore-an-overview

  126 Bol T, Van de Werfhorst HG. Educational systems and the trade-off between labor market allocation and equality of educational opportunity. Comparative Education Review 2013;57(2):285–308.

  127 OECD Singapore. Available at: www.oecd.org/education/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/49765882.pdf

  128 Deci EL, Ryan RM. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-determination in Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum, 1985.

  129 Deci EL, Koestner R, Ryan RM. A Meta-analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation. Psychological Bulletin 1999;125(6):627–68.

  130 Deci EL, et al. (1985).

  131 Ryan RM, Deci EL. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology 2000;25(1):54–67.

  132 Ryan RM, Deci EL. (2000)

  133 Choi K, Ross M. (Cultural differences in process and person focus: Congratulations on your hard work versus celebrating your exceptional brain. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2011;47(2):343–9.

  134 Chen C, Stevenson HW. Motivation and mathematics achievement: a comparative study of Asian-American, Caucasian-American, and East Asian high school students. Child Development 1995;66:1215–34.

  135 Wang Q, Pomerantz EM. The motivational landscape of early adolescence in the United States and China: a longitudinal investigation. Child Development 2009;80(4):1272–7.

  136 Stevenson HW, Stigler JW. The Learning Gap: Why our Schools Are Failing and What We Can Learn from Japanese and Chinese Education. New York: Summit Books, 1992: P105

  137 Wang, et al. (2009)

  138 Heine SJ, Kitayama S, Lehman DR, et al. Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: an investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2001;81(4):599.

  139 Ibid.

  140 Ng FF, Pomerantz EM, Lam S. European American and Chinese parents’ responses to children’s success and failure: Implications for children’s responses. Developmental Psychology 2007;43:1239–55.

  141 Li J. Cultural Foundations of Learning: East and West. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012:p7.

  142 Stipek DJ. Motivation to Learn: Integrating Theory and Practice (4th ed). Boston: Allyn & Baker, 2002.

  143 Tobin J, Wu D, Davidson D. Preschool in Three Cultures: Japan, China, and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.

  144 Hess RD, Chang C-M, McDevitt TM. Cultural variations in family beliefs about children’s performance in mathematics: Comparisons among People’s Republic of China, Chinese-American, and Caucasian-American families. Journal of Educational Psychology 1987;79:179–88.

  145 Heine SJ, etal.

  146 Dweck C. Mindset: How You Can Fulfil Your Potential. London: Hachette UK, 2012.

  147 Pualengco RP, Chiu CY, Kim YH. (2009). Cultural variations in pre_emptive effort downplaying. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 2009;12(1):12–9.

  148 Dweck CS. Mindsets and Math/Science Achievement. New York: Carnegie Corp. of New York –Institute for Advanced Study Commission on Mathematics and Science Education, 2008.

  149 Li J. (2012);14.

  150 ibid.

  151 Li J. (2012); 13.

  152 Dweck CS. (2008).

  153 Ng, F. F. Y., Pomerantz, E. M., & Lam, S. F. (2007). European American

  and Chinese parents' responses to children's success and failure: implications for children's responses. Developmental Psychology, 43(5), 1239.

  154 Greenberger E, Chen C, Tally SR, Dong Q. Family, peer, and individual correlates of depressive symptomatology among US and Chinese adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000;68(2):209.

  155 Chao R, Tseng V. Parenting of Asians. Handbook of Parenting 2002;4:59–93.

  156 East China Normal University (2015) Gaokao to be reformed: A better Channel for social mobility?; Available at: http://english.ecnu.edu.cn/df/cf/c1706a57295/page.htm

  157 Qian H, Walker A. In: Tony Townsend and John MacBeath (eds.), International Handbo
ok of Leadership for Learning. Germany: Springer, 2011: 209-25.

  158 Researchers have independently found private migrant schools to be of

  worse educational quality than public schools. See Chen, Y., & Feng, S. (2013). Access to public schools and the education of migrant children in China. China Economic Review, 26, 75-88.

  159 Strauss V. So how overblown were No. 1 Shanghai’s PISA results? 2014.

  Available at: www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2014/03/20/

  so-how-overblown-were-no-1-shanghais-pisa-results

  160 OECD. PISA 2012 Results in Focus. What 15-year-olds Know and hat they can do with what they know. Paris: OECD, 2013. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf