History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

much by his own valor as by that of Charles Martel, his father, and

  Pepin his grandfather; for Charles Martel, being governor of the

  kingdom, effected the memorable defeat of the Saracens near Tours,

  upon the Loire, in which two hundred thousand of them are said to have

  been left dead upon the field of battle. Hence, Pepin, by his father's

  reputation and his own abilities, became afterward king of France. To

  him Pope Gregory, as we have said, applied for assistance against the

  Lombards, which Pepin promised to grant, but desired first to see him

  and be honored with his presence. Gregory accordingly went to France,

  passing uninjured through the country of his enemies, so great was the

  respect they had for religion, and was treated honorably by Pepin, who

  sent an army into Italy, and besieged the Lombards in Pavia. King

  Astolphus, compelled by necessity, made proposals of peace to the

  French, who agreed to them at the entreaty of the pope--for he did not

  desire the death of his enemy, but that he should be converted and

  live. In this treaty, Astolphus promised to give to the church all the

  places he had taken from her; but the king's forces having returned to

  France, he did not fulfill the agreement, and the pope again had

  recourse to Pepin, who sent another army, conquered the Lombards, took

  Ravenna, and, contrary to the wishes of the Greek emperor, gave it to

  the pope, with all the places that belonged to the exarchate, and

  added to them Urbino and the Marca. But Astolphus, while fulfilling

  the terms of his agreement, died, and Desiderius, a Lombard, who was

  duke of Tuscany, took up arms to occupy the kingdom, and demanded

  assistance of the pope, promising him his friendship. The pope

  acceding to his request, the other princes assented. Desiderius kept

  faith at first, and proceeded to resign the districts to the pope,

  according to the agreement made with Pepin, so that an exarch was no

  longer sent from Constantinople to Ravenna, but it was governed

  according to the will of the pope. Pepin soon after died, and was

  succeeded by his son Charles, the same who, on account of the

  magnitude and success of his enterprises, was called Charlemagne, or

  Charles the Great. Theodore I. now succeeded to the papacy, and

  discord arising between him and Desiderius, the latter besieged him in

  Rome. The pope requested assistance of Charles, who, having crossed

  the Alps, besieged Desiderius in Pavai, where he took both him and his

  children, and sent them prisoners to France. He then went to visit the

  pontiff at Rome, where he declared, THAT THE POPE, BEING VICAR OF GOD,

  COULD NOT BE JUDGED BY MEN. The pope and the people of Rome made him

  emperor; and thus Rome began to have an emperor of the west. And

  whereas the popes used to be established by the emperors, the latter

  now began to have need of the popes at their elections; the empire

  continued to lose its powers, while the church acquired them; and, by

  these means, she constantly extended her authority over temporal

  princes.

  The Lombards, having now been two hundred and thirty-two years in the

  country, were strangers only in name, and Charles, wishing to

  reorganize the states of Italy, consented that they should occupy the

  places in which they had been brought up, and call the province after

  their own name, Lombardy. That they might be led to respect the Roman

  name, he ordered all that part of Italy adjoining to them, which had

  been under the exarchate of Ravenna, to be called Romagna. Besides

  this, he created his son Pepin, king of Italy, whose dominion extended

  to Benevento; all the rest being possessed by the Greek emperor, with

  whom Charles was in league. About this time Pascal I. occupied the

  pontificate, and the priests of the churches of Rome, from being near

  to the pope, and attending the elections of the pontiff, began to

  dignify their own power with a title, by calling themselves cardinals,

  and arrogated so great authority, that having excluded the people of

  Rome from the election of pontiff, the appointment of a new pope was

  scarcely ever made except from one of their own number: thus on the

  death of Pascal, the cardinal of St. Sabina was created pope by the

  title of Eugenius II. Italy having come into the hands of the French,

  a change of form and order took place, the popes acquiring greater

  temporal power, and the new authorities adopting the titles of count

  and marquis, as that of duke had been introduced by Longinus, exarch

  of Ravenna. After the deaths of some pontiffs, Osporco, a Roman,

  succeeded to the papacy; but on account of his unseemly appellation,

  he took the name of Sergius, and this was the origin of that change of

  names which the popes adopt upon their election to the pontificate.

  In the meantime, the Emperor Charles died and was succeeded by Lewis

  (the Pious, after whose death so many disputes arose among his sons,

  that at the time of his grandchildren, the house of France lost the

  empire, which then came to the Germans; the first German emperor being

  called Arnolfus. Nor did the Carlovingian family lose the empire only;

  their discords also occasioned them the loss of Italy; for the

  Lombards, gathering strength, offended the pope and the Romans, and

  Arnolfo, not knowing where to seek relief, was compelled to create

  Berengarius, duke of Fruili, king of Italy. These events induced the

  Huns, who occupied Pannonia, to assail Italy; but, in an engagement

  with Berengarius, they were compelled to return to Pannonia, which had

  from them been named Hungary.

  Romano was at this time emperor of Greece, having, while prefect of

  the army, dethroned Constantine; and as Puglia and Calabria, which, as

  before observed, were parts of the Greek empire, had revolted, he gave

  permission to the Saracans to occupy them; and they having taken

  possession of these provinces, besieged Rome. The Romans, Berengarius

  being then engaged in defending himself against the Huns, appointed

  Alberic, duke of Tuscany, their leader. By his valor Rome was saved

  from the Saracens, who, withdrawing from the siege, erected a fortress

  upon Mount Gargano, by means of which they governed Puglia and

  Calabria, and harassed the whole country. Thus Italy was in those

  times very grievously afflicted, being in constant warfare with the

  Huns in the direction of the Alps, and, on the Neapolitan side,

  suffering from the inroads of the Saracens. This state of things

  continued many years, occupying the reigns of three Berengarii, who

  succeeded each other; and during this time the pope and the church

  were greatly disturbed; the impotence of the eastern, and the disunion

  which prevailed among the western princes, leaving them without

  defense. The city of Genoa, with all her territory upon the rivers,

  having been overrun by the Saracens, an impulse was thus given to the

  rising greatness of Pisa, in which city multitudes took refuge who had

  been driven out of their own country. These events occurred in the

  year 931, when Otho, duke of Saxony, the son of Henry and Matilda, a

  man of great prudence
and reputation, being made emperor, the pope

  Agapito, begged that he would come into Italy and relieve him from the

  tyranny of the Berengarii.

  The States of Italy were governed in this manner: Lombardy was under

  Berengarius III. and Alfred his son; Tuscany and Romagna were governed

  by a deputy of the western emperor; Puglia and Calabria were partly

  under the Greek emperor, and partly under the Saracens; in Rome two

  consuls were annually chosen from the nobility, who governed her

  according to ancient custom; to these was added a prefect, who

  dispensed justice among the people; and there was a council of twelve,

  who each year appointed rectors for the places subject to them. The

  popes had more or less authority in Rome and the rest of Italy, in

  proportion as they were favorites of the emperor or of the most

  powerful states. The Emperor Otho came into Italy, took the kingdom

  from the Berengarii, in which they had reigned fifty-five years, and

  reinstated the pontiff in his dignity. He had a son and a nephew, each

  named Otho, who, one after the other, succeeded to the empire. In the

  reign of Otho III., Pope Gregory V. was expelled by the Romans;

  whereupon the emperor came into Italy and replaced him; and the pope,

  to revenge himself on the Romans, took from them the right to create

  an emperor, and gave it to three princes and three bishops of Germany;

  the princes of Brandenburg, Palatine, and Saxony, and the bishops of

  Magonza, Treveri, and Colonia. This occurred in the year 1002. After

  the death of Otho III. the electors created Henry, duke of Bavaria,

  emperor, who at the end of twelve years was crowned by Pope Stephen

  VIII. Henry and his wife Simeonda were persons of very holy life, as

  is seen by the many temples built and endowed by them, of which the

  church of St. Miniato, near Florence, is one. Henry died in 1024, and

  was succeeded by Conrad of Suabia; and the latter by Henry II., who

  came to Rome; and as there was a schism in the church of three popes,

  he set them all aside, and caused the election of Clement II., by whom

  he was crowned emperor.

  CHAPTER IV

  Nicholas II. commits the election of the pope to the cardinals--

  First example of a prince deprived of his dominions by the pope--

  Guelphs and Ghibellines--Establishment of the kingdom of Naples--

  Pope Urban II. goes to France--The first crusade--New orders of

  knighthood--Saladin takes from the Christians their possessions in

  the east--Death of the Countess Matilda--Character of Frederick

  Barbarossa--Schism--Frederick creates an anti-pope--Building of

  Alexandria in Puglia--Disgraceful conditions imposed by the pope

  upon Henry, king of England--Reconciliation of Frederick with the

  pope--The kingdom of Naples passes to the Germans--Orders of St.

  Dominic and St. Francis.

  Italy was at this time governed partly by the people, some districts

  by their own princes, and others by the deputies of the emperor. The

  highest in authority, and to whom the others referred, was called the

  chancellor. Of the princes, the most powerful were Godfred and the

  Countess Matilda his wife, who was daughter of Beatrice, the sister of

  Henry II. She and her husband possessed Lucca, Parma, Reggio, Mantua,

  and the whole of what is now called THE PATRIMONY OF THE CHURCH. The

  ambition of the Roman people caused many wars between them and the

  pontiffs, whose authority had previously been used to free them from

  the emperors; but when they had taken the government of the city to

  themselves, and regulated it according to their own pleasure, they at

  once became at enmity with the popes, who received far more injuries

  from them than from any Christian potentate. And while the popes

  caused all the west to tremble with their censures, the people of Rome

  were in open rebellion against them; nor had they or the popes any

  other purpose, but to deprive each other of reputation and authority.

  Nicholas II. now attained the papacy; and as Gregory V. had taken from

  the Romans the right to create an emperor, he in the same manner

  determined to deprive them of their share in the election of the pope;

  and confined the creation to the cardinals alone. Nor did this satisfy

  him; for, having agreed with the princes who governed Calabria and

  Puglia, with methods which we shall presently relate, he compelled the

  officers whom the Romans appointed to their different jurisdictions,

  to render obedience to him; and some of them he even deprived of their

  offices. After the death of Nicholas, there was a schism in the

  church; the clergy of Lombardy refused obedience to Alexander II.,

  created at Rome, and elected Cadolo of Parma anti-pope; and Henry, who

  hated the power of the pontiffs, gave Alexander to understand that he

  must renounce the pontificate, and ordered the cardinals to go into

  Germany to appoint a new pope. He was the first who felt the

  importance of spiritual weapons; for the pope called a council at

  Rome, and deprived Henry of both the empire and the kingdom. Some of

  the people of Italy took the part of the pope, others of Henry; and

  hence arose the factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines; that

  Italy, relieved from the inundations of barbarians, might be

  distracted with intestine strife. Henry, being excommunicated, was

  compelled by his people to come into Italy, and fall barefooted upon

  his knees before the pope, and ask his pardon. This occurred in the

  year 1082. Nevertheless, there shortly afterward arose new discords

  between the pope and Henry; upon which the pope again excommunicated

  him, and the emperor sent his son, also named Henry, with an army to

  Rome, and he, with the assistance of the Romans, who hated the pope,

  besieged him in the fortress. Robert Guiscard them came from Puglia to

  his relief, but Henry had left before his arrival, and returned to

  Germany. The Romans stood out alone, and the city was sacked by

  Robert, and reduced to ruins. As from this Robert sprung the

  establishment of the kingdom of Naples, it seems not superfluous to

  relate particularly his actions and origin.

  Disunion having arisen among the descendants of Charlemagne, occasion

  was given to another northern people, called Normans, to assail France

  and occupy that portion of the country which is now named Normandy. A

  part of these people came into Italy at the time when the province was

  infested with the Berengarii, the Saracans, and the Huns, and occupied

  some places in Romagna, where, during the wars of that period, they

  conducted themselves valiantly. Tancred, one of these Norman princes,

  had many children; among the rest were William, surnamed Ferabac, and

  Robert, called Guiscard. When the principality was governed by

  William, the troubles of Italy were in some measure abated; but the

  Saracens still held Sicily, and plundered the coasts of Italy daily.

  On this account William arranged with the princes of Capua and

  Salerno, and with Melorco, a Greek, who governed Puglia and Calabria

  for the Greek emperor, to attack Sicily; and it was agreed that, if

/>   they were victorious, each should have a fourth part of the booty and

  the territory. They were fortunate in their enterprise, expelled the

  Saracens, and took possession of the island; but, after the victory,

  Melorco secretly caused forces to be brought from Greece, seized

  Sicily in the name of the emperor, and appropriated the booty to

  himself and his followers. William was much dissatisfied with this,

  but reserved the exhibition of his displeasure for a suitable

  opportunity, and left Sicily with the princes of Salerno and Capua.

  But when they had parted from him to return to their homes, instead of

  proceeding to Romagna he led his people towards Puglia, and took

  Melfi; and from thence, in a short time, recovered from the Greek

  emperor almost the whole of Puglia and Calabria, over which provinces,

  in the time of pope Nicholas II. his brother Robert Guiscard was

  sovereign. Robert having had many disputes with his nephews for the

  inheritance of these states, requested the influence of the pope to

  settle them; which his holiness was very willing to afford, being

  anxious to make a friend of Robert, to defend himself against the

  emperor of Germany and the insolence of the Roman people, which indeed

  shortly followed, when, at the instance of Gregory, he drove Henry

  from Rome, and subdued the people. Robert was succeeded by his sons

  Roger and William, to whose dominion not only was Naples added, but

  all the places interjacent as far as Rome, and afterward Sicily, of

  which Roger became sovereign; but, upon William going to

  Constantinople, to marry the daughter of the emperor, his dominions

  were wrested from him by his brother Roger. Inflated with so great an

  acquisition, Roger first took the title of king of Italy, but

  afterward contented himself with that of king of Puglia and Sicily. He

  was the first who established and gave that name to this kingdom,

  which still retains its ancient boundaries, although its sovereigns

  have been of many families and countries. Upon the failure of the

  Normans, it came to the Germans, after these to the French, then to

  the Aragonese, and it is now held by the Flemish.

  About this time Urban II. became pope and excited the hatred of the

  Romans. As he did not think himself safe even in Italy, on account of

  the disunion which prevailed, he directed his thoughts to a generous

  enterprise. With his whole clergy he went into France, and at Anvers,

  having drawn together a vast multitude of people, delivered an oration

  against the infidels, which so excited the minds of his audience, that

  they determined to undertake the conquest of Asia from the Saracens;

  which enterprise, with all those of a similar nature, were afterward

  called crusades, because the people who joined in them bore upon their

  armor and apparel the figure of a cross. The leaders were Godfrey,

  Eustace, and Baldwin of Bouillon, counts of Boulogne, and Peter, a

  hermit celebrated for his prudence and sagacity. Many kings and people

  joined them, and contributed money; and many private persons fought

  under them at their own expense; so great was the influence of

  religion in those days upon the minds of men, excited by the example

  of those who were its principal ministers. The proudest successes

  attended the beginning of this enterprise; for the whole of Asia

  Minor, Syria, and part of Egypt, fell under the power of the

  Christians. To commemorate these events the order of the Knights of

  Jerusalem was created, which still continues, and holds the island of

  Rhodes--the only obstacle to the power of the Mohammedans. The same

  events gave rise to the order of the Knights Templars, which, after a

  short time, on account of their shameless practices, was dissolved.

  Various fortunes attended the crusaders in the course of their

  enterprises, and many nations and individuals became celebrated

  accordingly. The kings of France and England joined them, and, with

  the Venetians, Pisans, and Genoese, acquired great reputation, till