History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

country and to liberty; but they could not devise any better plan,

  knowing the power of which the duke was possessed, than to endeavor by

  entreaty to induce him either to forego his design or to make his

  government less intolerable. A party of them was, therefore, appointed

  to wait upon him, one of whom addressed him in the following manner:--

  "We appear before you, my lord, induced first by the demand which you

  have made, and then by the orders you have given for a meeting of the

  people; for it appears to us very clearly, that it is your intention

  to effect by extraordinary means the design from which we have

  hitherto withheld our consent. It is not, however, our intention to

  oppose you with force, but only to show what a heavy charge you take

  upon yourself, and the dangerous course you adopt; to the end that you

  may remember our advice and that of those who, not by consideration of

  what is beneficial for you, but for the gratification of their own

  unreasonable wishes, have advised you differently. You are endeavoring

  to reduce to slavery a city that has always existed in freedom; for

  the authority which we have at times conceded to the kings of Naples

  was companionship and not servitude. Have you considered the mighty

  things which the name of liberty implies to such a city as this, and

  how delightful it is to those who hear it? It has a power which

  nothing can subdue, time cannot wear away, nor can any degree of merit

  in a prince countervail the loss of it. Consider, my lord, how great

  the force must be that can keep a city like this in subjection, no

  foreign aid would enable you to do it; neither can you confide in

  those at home; for they who are at present your friends, and advise

  you to adopt the course you now pursue, as soon as with your

  assistance they have overcome their enemies, will at once turn their

  thoughts toward effecting your destruction, and then take the

  government upon themselves. The plebeians, in whom you confide, will

  change upon any accident, however trivial; so that in a very short

  time you may expect to see the whole city opposed to you, which will

  produce both their ruin and your own. Nor will you be able to find any

  remedy for this; for princes who have but few enemies may make their

  government very secure by the death or banishment of those who are

  opposed to them; but when the hatred is universal, no security

  whatever can be found, for you cannot tell from what direction the

  evil may commence; and he who has to apprehend every man his enemy

  cannot make himself assured of anyone. And if you should attempt to

  secure a friend or two, you would only increase the dangers of your

  situation; for the hatred of the rest would be increased by your

  success, and they would become more resolutely disposed to vengeance.

  "That time can neither destroy nor abate the desire for freedom is

  most certain; for it has been often observed, that those have

  reassumed their liberty who in their own persons had never tasted of

  its charms, and love it only from remembrance of what they have heard

  their fathers relate; and, therefore, when recovered, have preserved

  it with indomitable resolution and at every hazard. And even when

  their fathers could not remember it, the public buildings, the halls

  of the magistracy, and the insignia of free institutions, remind them

  of it; and these things cannot fail to be known and greatly desired by

  every class of citizens.

  "What is it you imagine you can do, that would be an equivalent for

  the sweets of liberty, or make men lose the desire of their present

  conditions? No; if you were to join the whole of Tuscany to the

  Florentine rule, if you were to return to the city daily in triumph

  over her enemies, what could it avail? The glory would not be ours,

  but yours. We should not acquire fellow-citizens, but partakers of our

  bondage, who would serve to sink us still deeper in ignominy. And if

  your conduct were in every respect upright, your demeanor amiable, and

  your judgments equitable, all these would be insufficient to make you

  beloved. If you imagine otherwise, you deceive yourself; for, to one

  accustomed to the enjoyment of liberty, the slightest chains feel

  heavy, and every tie upon his free soul oppresses him. Besides, it is

  impossible to find a violent people associated with a good prince, for

  of necessity they must soon become alike, or their difference produce

  the ruin of one of them. You may, therefore, be assured, that you will

  either have to hold this city by force, to effect which, guards,

  castles, and external aid have oft been found insufficient, or be

  content with the authority we have conferred; and this we would

  advise, reminding you that no dominion can be durable to which the

  governed do not consent; and we have no wish to lead you, blinded by

  ambition, to such a point that, unable either to stand or advance, you

  must, to the great injury of both, of necessity fall."

  This discourse did not in the slightest degree soften the obdurate

  mind of the duke, who replied that it was not his intention to rob the

  city of her liberty, but to restore it to her; for those cities alone

  are in slavery that are disunited, while the united are free. As

  Florence, by her factions and ambition, had deprived herself of

  liberty, he should restore, not take it from her; and as he had been

  induced to take this charge upon himself, not from his own ambition,

  but at the entreaty of a great number of citizens, they would do well

  to be satisfied with that which produced contentment among the rest.

  With regard to the danger he might incur, he thought nothing of it;

  for it was not the part of a good man to avoid doing good from his

  apprehension of evil, and it was the part of a coward to shun a

  glorious undertaking because some uncertainty attended the success of

  the attempt; and he knew he should so conduct himself, that they would

  soon see they had entertained great apprehensions and been in little

  danger.

  The Signory then agreed, finding they could not do better, that on the

  following morning the people should be assembled in their accustomed

  place of meeting, and with their consent the Signory should confer

  upon the duke the sovereignty of the city for one year, on the same

  conditions as it had been intrusted to the duke of Calabria. It was

  upon the 8th of November, 1342, when the duke, accompanied by Giovanni

  della Tosa and all his confederates, with many other citizens, came to

  the piazza or court of the palace, and having, with the Signory

  mounted upon the ringhiera, or rostrum (as the Florentines call those

  steps which lead to the palace), the agreement which had been entered

  into between the Signory and himself was read. When they had come to

  the passage which gave the government to him for one year, the people

  shouted, "FOR LIFE." Upon this, Francesco Rustichelli, one of the

  Signory, arose to speak, and endeavored to abate the tumult and

  procure a hearing; but the mob, with their hootings, prevented him

  from being heard by anyone; so that with the consent
of the people the

  duke was elected, not for one year merely, but for life. He was then

  borne through the piazza by the crowd, shouting his name as they

  proceeded.

  It is the custom that he who is appointed to the guard of the palace

  shall, in the absence of the Signory, remain locked within. This

  office was at that time held by Rinieri di Giotto, who, bribed by the

  friends of the duke, without waiting for any force, admitted him

  immediately. The Signory, terrified and dishonored, retired to their

  own houses; the palace was plundered by the followers of the duke, the

  Gonfalon of the people torn to pieces, and the arms of the duke placed

  over the palace. All this happened to the indescribable sorrow of good

  men, though to the satisfaction of those who, either from ignorance or

  malignity, were consenting parties.

  The duke, having acquired the sovereignty of the city, in order to

  strip those of all authority who had been defenders of her liberty,

  forbade the Signory to assemble in the palace, and appointed a private

  dwelling for their use. He took their colors from the Gonfaloniers of

  the companies of the people; abolished the ordinances made for the

  restraint of the great; set at liberty those who were imprisoned;

  recalled the Bardi and the Frescobaldi from exile, and forbade

  everyone from carrying arms about his person. In order the better to

  defend himself against those within the city, he made friends of all

  he could around it, and therefore conferred great benefits upon the

  Aretini and other subjects of the Florentines. He made peace with the

  Pisans, although raised to power in order that he might carry on war

  against them; ceased paying interest to those merchants who, during

  the war against Lucca, had lent money to the republic; increased the

  old taxes, levied new ones, and took from the Signory all authority.

  His rectors were Baglione da Perugia and Guglielmo da Scesi, who, with

  Cerrettieri Bisdomini, were the persons with whom he consulted on

  public affairs. He imposed burdensome taxes upon the citizens; his

  decisions between contending parties were unjust; and that precision

  and humanity which he had at first assumed, became cruelty and pride;

  so that many of the greatest citizens and noblest people were, either

  by fines, death, or some new invention, grievously oppressed. And in

  completing the same bad system, both without the city and within, he

  appointed six rectors for the country, who beat and plundered the

  inhabitants. He suspected the great, although he had been benefited by

  them, and had restored many to their country; for he felt assured that

  the generous minds of the nobility would not allow them, from any

  motives, to submit contentedly to his authority. He also began to

  confer benefits and advantages upon the lowest orders, thinking that

  with their assistance, and the arms of foreigners, he would be able to

  preserve the tyranny. The month of May, during which feasts are held,

  being come, he caused many companies to be formed of the plebeians and

  very lowest of the people, and to these, dignified with splendid

  titles, he gave colors and money; and while one party went in

  bacchanalian procession through the city, others were stationed in

  different parts of it, to receive them as guests. As the report of the

  duke's authority spread abroad, many of French origin came to him, for

  all of whom he found offices and emoluments, as if they had been the

  most trustworthy of men; so that in a short time Florence became not

  only subject to French dominion, but adopted their dress and manners;

  for men and women, without regard to propriety or sense of shame,

  imitated them. But that which disgusted the people most completely was

  the violence which, without any distinction of quality or rank, he and

  his followers committed upon the women.

  The people were filled with indignation, seeing the majesty of the

  state overturned, its ordinances annihilated, its laws annulled, and

  every decent regulation set at naught; for men unaccustomed to royal

  pomp could not endure to see this man surrounded with his armed

  satellites on foot and on horseback; and having now a closer view of

  their disgrace, they were compelled to honor him whom they in the

  highest degree hated. To this hatred, was added the terror occasioned

  by the continual imposition of new taxes and frequent shedding of

  blood, with which he impoverished and consumed the city.

  The duke was not unaware of these impressions existing strongly in the

  people's minds, nor was he without fear of the consequences; but still

  pretended to think himself beloved; and when Matteo di Morozzo, either

  to acquire his favor or to free himself from danger, gave information

  that the family of the Medici and some others had entered into a

  conspiracy against him he not only did not inquire into the matter,

  but caused the informer to be put to a cruel death. This mode of

  proceeding restrained those who were disposed to acquaint him of his

  danger and gave additional courage to such as sought his ruin. Bertone

  Cini, having ventured to speak against the taxes with which the people

  were loaded, had his tongue cut out with such barbarous cruelty as to

  cause his death. This shocking act increased the people's rage, and

  their hatred of the duke; for those who were accustomed to discourse

  and to act upon every occasion with the greatest boldness, could not

  endure to live with their hands tied and forbidden to speak.

  This oppression increased to such a degree, that not merely the

  Florentines, who though unable to preserve their liberty cannot endure

  slavery, but the most servile people on earth would have been roused

  to attempt the recovery of freedom; and consequently many citizens of

  all ranks resolved either to deliver themselves from this odious

  tyranny or die in the attempt. Three distinct conspiracies were

  formed; one of the great; another of the people, and the third of the

  working classes; each of which, besides the general causes which

  operated upon the whole, were excited by some other particular

  grievance. The great found themselves deprived of all participation in

  the government; the people had lost the power they possessed, and the

  artificers saw themselves deficient in the usual remuneration of their

  labor.

  Agnolo Acciajuoli was at this time archbishop of Florence, and by his

  discourses had formerly greatly favored the duke, and procured him

  many followers among the higher class of the people. But when he found

  him lord of the city, and became acquainted with his tyrannical mode

  of proceeding, it appeared to him that he had misled his countrymen;

  and to correct the evil he had done, he saw no other course, but to

  attempt the cure by the means which had caused it. He therefore became

  the leader of the first and most powerful conspiracy, and was joined

  by the Bardi, Rossi, Frescobaldi, Scali Altoviti, Magalotti, Strozzi,

  and Mancini. Of the second, the principals were Manno and Corso

  Donati, and with them the Pazzi, Cavicciulli, Cerchi, and Albiz
zi. Of

  the third the first was Antonio Adimari, and with him the Medici,

  Bordini, Rucellai, and Aldobrandini. It was the intention of these

  last, to slay him in the house of the Albizzi, whither he was expected

  to go on St. John's day, to see the horses run, but he not having

  gone, their design did not succeed. They then resolved to attack him

  as he rode through the city; but they found this would be very

  difficult; for he was always accompanied with a considerable armed

  force, and never took the same road twice together, so that they had

  no certainty of where to find him. They had a design of slaying him in

  the council, although they knew that if he were dead, they would be at

  the mercy of his followers.

  While these matters were being considered by the conspirators, Antonio

  Adimari, in expectation of getting assistance from them, disclosed the

  affair to some Siennese, his friends, naming certain of the

  conspirators, and assuring them that the whole city was ready to rise

  at once. One of them communicated the matter to Francesco

  Brunelleschi, not with a design to injure the plot, but in the hope

  that he would join them. Francesco, either from personal fear, or

  private hatred of some one, revealed the whole to the duke; whereupon,

  Pagolo del Mazecha and Simon da Monterappoli were taken, who

  acquainted him with the number and quality of the conspirators. This

  terrified him, and he was advised to request their presence rather

  than to take them prisoners, for if they fled, he might without

  disgrace, secure himself by banishment of the rest. He therefore sent

  for Antonio Adimari, who, confiding in his companions, appeared

  immediately, and was detained. Francesco Brunelleschi and Uguccione

  Buondelmonti advised the duke to take as many of the conspirators

  prisoners as he could, and put them to death; but he, thinking his

  strength unequal to his foes, did not adopt this course, but took

  another, which, had it succeeded, would have freed him from his

  enemies and increased his power. It was the custom of the duke to call

  the citizens together upon some occasions and advise with them. He

  therefore having first sent to collect forces from without, made a

  list of three hundred citizens, and gave it to his messengers, with

  orders to assemble them under the pretense of public business; and

  having drawn them together, it was his intention either to put them to

  death or imprison them.

  The capture of Antonio Adimari and the sending for forces, which could

  not be kept secret, alarmed the citizens, and more particularly those

  who were in the plot, so that the boldest of them refused to attend,

  and as each had read the list, they sought each other, and resolved to

  rise at once and die like men, with arms in their hands, rather than

  be led like calves to the slaughter. In a very short time the chief

  conspirators became known to each other, and resolved that the next

  day, which was the 26th July, 1343, they would raise a disturbance in

  the Old Market place, then arm themselves and call the people to

  freedom.

  The next morning being come, at nine o'clock, according to agreement,

  they took arms, and at the call of liberty assembled, each party in

  its own district, under the ensigns and with the arms of the people,

  which had been secretly provided by the conspirators. All the heads of

  families, as well of the nobility as of the people, met together, and

  swore to stand in each other's defense, and effect the death of the

  duke; except some of the Buondelmonti and of the Cavalcanti, with

  those four families of the people which had taken so conspicuous a

  part in making him sovereign, and the butchers, with others, the

  lowest of the plebeians, who met armed in the piazza in his favor.

  The duke immediately fortified the place, and ordered those of his

  people who were lodged in different parts of the city to mount upon

  horseback and join those in the court; but, pn their way thither, many

  were attacked and slain. However, about three hundred horse assembled,