History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

and the duke was in doubt whether he should come forth and meet the

  enemy, or defend himself within. On the other hand, the Medici,

  Cavicciulli, Rucellai, and other families who had been most injured by

  him, fearful that if he came forth, many of those who had taken arms

  against him would discover themselves his partisans, in order to

  deprive him of the occasion of attacking them and increasing the

  number of his friends, took the lead and assailed the palace. Upon

  this, those families of the people who had declared for the duke,

  seeing themselves boldly attacked, changed their minds, and all took

  part with the citizens, except Uguccione Buondelmonti, who retired

  into the palace, and Giannozzo Cavalcanti, who having withdrawn with

  some of his followers to the new market, mounted upon a bench, and

  begged that those who were going in arms to the piazza, would take the

  part of the duke. In order to terrify them, he exaggerated the number

  of his people and threatened all with death who should obstinately

  persevere in their undertaking against their sovereign. But not

  finding any one either to follow him, or to chastise his insolence,

  and seeing his labor fruitless, he withdrew to his own house.

  In the meantime, the contest in the piazza between the people and the

  forces of the duke was very great; but although the place served them

  for defense, they were overcome, some yielding to the enemy, and

  others, quitting their horses, fled within the walls. While this was

  going on, Corso and Amerigo Donati, with a part of the people, broke

  open the stinche, or prisons; burnt the papers of the provost and of

  the public chamber; pillaged the houses of the rectors, and slew all

  who had held offices under the duke whom they could find. The duke,

  finding the piazza in possession of his enemies, the city opposed to

  him, and without any hope of assistance, endeavored by an act of

  clemency to recover the favor of the people. Having caused those whom

  he had made prisoners to be brought before him, with amiable and

  kindly expressions he set them at liberty, and made Antonio Adimari a

  knight, although quite against his will. He caused his own arms to be

  taken down, and those of the people to be replaced over the palace;

  but these things coming out of season, and forced by his necessities,

  did him little good. He remained, notwithstanding all he did, besieged

  in the palace, and saw that having aimed at too much he had lost all,

  and would most likely, after a few days, die either of hunger, or by

  the weapons of his enemies. The citizens assembled in the church of

  Santa Reparata, to form the new government, and appointed fourteen

  citizens, half from the nobility and half from the people, who, with

  the archbishop, were invested with full authority to remodel the state

  of Florence. They also elected six others to take upon them the duties

  of provost, till he who should be finally chosen took office, the

  duties of which were usually performed by a subject of some

  neighboring state.

  Many had come to Florence in defense of the people; among whom were a

  party from Sienna, with six ambassadors, men of high consideration in

  their own country. These endeavored to bring the people and the duke

  to terms; but the former refused to listen to any whatever, unless

  Guglielmo da Scesi and his son, with Cerrettieri Bisdomini, were first

  given up to them. The duke would not consent to this; but being

  threatened by those who were shut up with him, he was forced to

  comply. The rage of men is certainly always found greater, and their

  revenge more furious upon the recovery of liberty, than when it has

  only been defended. Guglielmo and his son were placed among the

  thousands of their enemies, and the latter was not yet eighteen years

  old; neither his beauty, his innocence, nor his youth, could save him

  from the fury of the multitude; but both were instantly slain. Those

  who could not wound them while alive, wounded them after they were

  dead; and not satisfied with tearing them to pieces, they hewed their

  bodies with swords, tore them with their hands, and even with their

  teeth. And that every sense might be satiated with vengeance, having

  first heard their moans, seen their wounds, and touched their

  lacerated bodies, they wished even the stomach to be satisfied, that

  having glutted the external senses, the one within might also have its

  share. This rabid fury, however hurtful to the father and son, was

  favorable to Cerrettieri; for the multitude, wearied with their

  cruelty toward the former, quite forgot him, so that he, not being

  asked for, remained in the palace, and during night was conveyed

  safely away by his friends.

  The rage of the multitude being appeased by their blood, an agreement

  was made that the duke and his people, with whatever belonged to him,

  should quit the city in safety; that he should renounce all claim, of

  whatever kind, upon Florence, and that upon his arrival in the

  Casentino he should ratify his renunciation. On the sixth of August he

  set out, accompanied by many citizens, and having arrived at the

  Casentino he ratified the agreement, although unwillingly, and would

  not have kept his word if Count Simon had not threatened to take him

  back to Florence. This duke, as his proceedings testified, was cruel

  and avaricious, difficult to speak with, and haughty in reply. He

  desired the service of men, not the cultivation of their better

  feelings, and strove rather to inspire them with fear than love. Nor

  was his person less despicable than his manners; he was short, his

  complexion was black, and he had a long, thin beard. He was thus in

  every respect contemptible; and at the end of ten months, his

  misconduct deprived him of the sovereignty which the evil counsel of

  others had given him.

  CHAPTER IX

  Many cities and territories, subject to the Florentines, rebel--

  Prudent conduct adopted upon this occasion--The city is divided

  into quarters--Disputes between the nobility and the people--The

  bishop endeavors to reconcile them, but does not succeed--The

  government reformed by the people--Riot of Andrea Strozzi--Serious

  disagreements between the nobility and the people--They come to

  arms, and the nobility are subdued--The plague in Florence of

  which Boccaccio speaks.

  These events taking place in the city, induced all the dependencies of

  the Florentine state to throw off their yoke; so that Arezzo,

  Castiglione, Pistoia, Volterra, Colle, and San Gemigniano rebelled.

  Thus Florence found herself deprived of both her tyrant and her

  dominions at the same moment, and in recovering her liberty, taught

  her subjects how they might become free. The duke being expelled and

  the territories lost, the fourteen citizens and the bishop thought it

  would be better to act kindly toward their subjects in peace, than to

  make them enemies by war, and to show a desire that their subjects

  should be free as well as themselves. They therefore sent ambassadors

  to the people of Arezzo, to renounce all domin
ion over that city, and

  to enter into a treaty with them; to the end that as they could not

  retain them as subjects, they might make use of them as friends. They

  also, in the best manner they were able, agreed with the other places

  that they should retain their freedom, and that, being free, they

  might mutually assist each other in the preservation of their

  liberties. This prudent course was attended with a most favorable

  result; for Arezzo, not many years afterward, returned to the

  Florentine rule, and the other places, in the course of a few months,

  returned to their former obedience. Thus it frequently occurs that we

  sooner attain our ends by a seeming indifferent to them, than by more

  obstinate pursuit.

  Having settled external affairs, they now turned to the consideration

  of those within the city; and after some altercation between the

  nobility and the people, it was arranged that the nobility should form

  one-third of the Signory and fill one-half of the other offices. The

  city was, as we have before shown, divided into sixths; and hence

  there would be six signors, one for each sixth, except when, from some

  more than ordinary cause, there had been twelve or thirteen created;

  but when this had occurred they were again soon reduced to six. It now

  seemed desirable to make an alteration in this respect, as well

  because the sixths were not properly divided, as that, wishing to give

  their proportion to the great, it became desirable to increase the

  number. They therefore divided the city into quarters, and for each

  created three signors. They abolished the office of Gonfalonier of

  Justice, and also the Gonfaloniers of the companies of the people; and

  instead of the twelve Buonuomini, or good men, created eight

  counsellors, four from each party. The government having been

  established in this manner, the city might have been in repose if the

  great had been content to live in that moderation which civil society

  requires. But they produced a contrary result, for those out of office

  would not conduct themselves as citizens, and those who were in

  government wished to be lords, so that every day furnished some new

  instance of their insolence and pride. These things were very grievous

  to the people, and they began to regret that for one tyrant put down,

  there had sprung up a thousand. The arrogance of one party and the

  anger of the other rose to such a degree, that the heads of the people

  complained to the bishop of the improper conduct of the nobility, and

  what unfit associates they had become for the people; and begged he

  would endeavor to induce them to be content with their share of

  administration in the other offices, and leave the magistracy of the

  Signory wholly to themselves.

  The bishop was naturally a well-meaning man, but his want of firmness

  rendered him easily influenced. Hence, at the instance of his

  associates, he at first favored the duke of Athens, and afterward, by

  the advice of other citizens, conspired against him. At the

  reformation of the government, he had favored the nobility, and now he

  appeared to incline toward the people, moved by the reasons which they

  had advanced. Thinking to find in others the same instability of

  purpose, he endeavored to effect an amicable arrangement. With this

  design he called together the fourteen who were yet in office, and in

  the best terms he could imagine advised them to give up the Signory to

  the people, in order to secure the peace of the city; and assured them

  that if they refused, ruin would most probably be the result.

  This discourse excited the anger of the nobility to the highest pitch,

  and Ridolfo de' Bardi reproved him in unmeasured terms as a man of

  little faith; reminding him of his friendship for the duke, to prove

  the duplicity of his present conduct, and saying, that in driving him

  away he had acted the part of a traitor. He concluded by telling him,

  that the honors they had acquired at their own peril, they would at

  their own peril defend. They then left the bishop, and in great wrath,

  informed their associates in the government, and all the families of

  the nobility, of what had been done. The people also expressed their

  thoughts to each other, and as the nobility made preparations for the

  defense of their signors, they determined not to wait till they had

  perfected their arrangements; and therefore, being armed, hastened to

  the palace, shouting, as they went along, that the nobility must give

  up their share in the government.

  The uproar and excitement were astonishing. The Signors of the

  nobility found themselves abandoned; for their friends, seeing all the

  people in arms, did not dare to rise in their defense, but each kept

  within his own house. The Signors of the people endeavored to abate

  the excitement of the multitude, by affirming their associates to be

  good and moderate men; but, not succeeding in their attempt, to avoid

  a greater evil, sent them home to their houses, whither they were with

  difficulty conducted. The nobility having left the palace, the office

  of the four councillors was taken from their party, and conferred upon

  twelve of the people. To the eight signors who remained, a Gonfalonier

  of Justice was added, and sixteen Gonfaloniers of the companies of the

  people; and the council was so reformed, that the government remained

  wholly in the hands of the popular party.

  At the time these events took place there was a great scarcity in the

  city, and discontent prevailed both among the highest and the lowest

  classes; in the latter for want of food, and in the former from having

  lost their power in the state. This circumstance induced Andrea

  Strozzi to think of making himself sovereign of the city. Selling his

  corn at a lower price than others did, a great many people flocked to

  his house; emboldened by the sight of these, he one morning mounted

  his horse, and, followed by a considerable number, called the people

  to arms, and in a short time drew together about 4,000 men, with whom

  he proceeded to the Signory, and demanded that the gates of the palace

  should be opened. But the signors, by threats and the force which they

  retained in the palace, drove them from the court; and then by

  proclamation so terrified them, that they gradually dropped off and

  returned to their homes, and Andrea, finding himself alone, with some

  difficulty escaped falling into the hands of the magistrates.

  This event, although an act of great temerity, and attended with the

  result that usually follows such attempts, raised a hope in the minds

  of the nobility of overcoming the people, seeing that the lowest of

  the plebeians were at enmity with them. And to profit by this

  circumstance, they resolved to arm themselves, and with justifiable

  force recover those rights of which they had been unjustly deprived.

  Their minds acquired such an assurance of success, that they openly

  provided themselves with arms, fortified their houses, and even sent

  to their friends in Lombardy for assistance. The people and the

  Signory made preparation f
or their defense, and requested aid from

  Perugia and Sienna, so that the city was filled with the armed

  followers of either party. The nobility on this side of the Arno

  divided themselves into three parts; the one occupied the houses of

  the Cavicciulli, near the church of St. John; another, the houses of

  the Pazzi and the Donati, near the great church of St. Peter; and the

  third those of the Cavalcanti in the New Market. Those beyond the

  river fortified the bridges and the streets in which their houses

  stood; the Nerli defended the bridge of the Carraja; the Frescobaldi

  and the Manelli, the church of the Holy Trinity; and the Rossi and the

  Bardi, the bridge of the Rubaconte and the Old Bridge. The people were

  drawn together under the Gonfalon of justice and the ensigns of the

  companies of the artisans.

  Both sides being thus arranged in order of battle, the people thought

  it imprudent to defer the contest, and the attack was commenced by the

  Medici and the Rondinelli, who assailed the Cavicciulli, where the

  houses of the latter open upon the piazza of St. John. Here both

  parties contended with great obstinacy, and were mutually wounded,

  from the towers by stones and other missiles, and from below by

  arrows. They fought for three hours; but the forces of the people

  continuing to increase, and the Cavicciulli finding themselves

  overcome by numbers, and hopeless of other assistance, submitted

  themselves to the people, who saved their houses and property; and

  having disarmed them, ordered them to disperse among their relatives

  and friends, and remain unarmed. Being victorious in the first attack,

  they easily overpowered the Pazzi and the Donati, whose numbers were

  less than those they had subdued; so that there only remained on this

  side of the Arno, the Cavalcanti, who were strong both in respect of

  the post they had chosen and in their followers. Nevertheless, seeing

  all the Gonfalons against them, and that the others had been overcome

  by three Gonfalons alone, they yielded without offering much

  resistance. Three parts of the city were now in the hands of the

  people, and only one in possession of the nobility; but this was the

  strongest, as well on account of those who held it, as from its

  situation, being defended by the Arno; hence it was first necessary to

  force the bridges. The Old Bridge was first assailed and offered a

  brave resistance; for the towers were armed, the streets barricaded,

  and the barricades defended by the most resolute men; so that the

  people were repulsed with great loss. Finding their labor at this

  point fruitless, they endeavored to force the Rubaconte Bridge, but no

  better success resulting, they left four Gonfalons in charge of the

  two bridges, and with the others attacked the bridge of the Carraja.

  Here, although the Nerli defended themselves like brave men, they

  could not resist the fury of the people; for this bridge, having no

  towers, was weaker than the others, and was attacked by the Capponi,

  and many families of the people who lived in that vicinity. Being thus

  assailed on all sides, they abandoned the barricades and gave way to

  the people, who then overcame the Rossi and the Frescobaldi; for all

  those beyond the Arno took part with the conquerors.

  There was now no resistance made except by the Bardi, who remained

  undaunted, notwithstanding the failure of their friends, the union of

  the people against them, and the little chance of success which they

  seemed to have. They resolved to die fighting, and rather see their

  houses burned and plundered, than submit to the power of their

  enemies. They defended themselves with such obstinacy, that many

  fruitless attempts were made to overcome them, both at the Old Bridge

  and the Rubaconte; but their foes were always repulsed with loss.

  There had in former times been a street which led between the houses

  of the Pitti, from the Roman road to the walls upon Mount St. George.

  By this way the people sent six Gonfalons, with orders to assail their