History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

large a share of it, as to be forgiven past errors, and have

  sufficient authority to threaten the city with a renewal of them at

  some future time. I confess this course is bold and dangerous, but

  when necessity presses, audacity becomes prudence, and in great

  affairs the brave never think of dangers. The enterprises that are

  begun with hazard always have a reward at last; and no one ever

  escaped from embarrassment without some peril. Besides, it is easy to

  see from all their preparations of prisons, racks, and instruments of

  death, that there is more danger in inaction than in endeavoring to

  secure ourselves; for in the first case the evils are certain, in the

  latter doubtful. How often have I heard you complain of the avarice of

  your superiors and the injustice of your magistrates. Now then is the

  time, not only to liberate yourself from them, but to become so much

  superior, that they will have more causes of grief and fear from you,

  than you from them. The opportunity presented by circumstances passes

  away, and when gone, it will be vain to think it can be recalled. You

  see the preparations of our enemies; let us anticipate them; and those

  who are first in arms will certainly be victors, to the ruin of their

  enemies and their own exaltation; and thus honors will accrue to many

  of us and security to all." These arguments greatly inflamed minds

  already disposed to mischief, so that they determined to take up arms

  as soon as they had acquired a sufficient number of associates, and

  bound themselves by oath to mutual defense, in case any of them were

  subdued by the civil power.

  While they were arranging to take possession of the republic, their

  design became known to the Signory, who, having taken a man named

  Simone, learned from him the particulars of the conspiracy, and that

  the outbreak was to take place on the following day. Finding the

  danger so pressing, they called together the colleagues and those

  citizens who with the syndics of the arts were endeavoring to effect

  the union of the city. It was then evening, and they advised the

  signors to assemble the consuls of the trades, who proposed that

  whatever armed force was in Florence should be collected, and with the

  Gonfaloniers of the people and their companies, meet under arms in the

  piazza next morning. It happened that while Simone was being tortured,

  a man named Niccolo da San Friano was regulating the palace clock, and

  becoming acquainted with what was going on, returned home and spread

  the report of it in his neighborhood, so that presently the piazza of

  St. Spirito was occupied by above a thousand men. This soon became

  known to the other conspirators, and San Pietro Maggiore and St.

  Lorenzo, their places of assembly, were presently full of them, all

  under arms.

  CHAPTER IV

  Proceedings of the plebeians--The demand they make of the Signory

  --They insist that the Signory leave the palace--The Signory leave

  the palace--Michael di Lando Gonfalonier--Complaints and movements

  of the plebeians against Michael di Lando--Michael di Lando

  proceeds against the plebeians and reduces them to order--

  Character of Michael di Lando.

  At daybreak on the 21st of July, there did not appear in the piazza

  above eighty men in arms friendly to the Signory, and not one of the

  Gonfaloniers; for knowing the whole city to be in a state of

  insurrection they were afraid to leave their homes. The first body of

  plebeians that made its appearance was that which had assembled at San

  Pietro Maggiore; but the armed force did not venture to attack them.

  Then came the other multitudes, and finding no opposition, they loudly

  demanded their prisoners from the Signory; and being resolved to have

  them by force if they were not yielded to their threats, they burned

  the house of Luigi Guicciardini; and the Signory, for fear of greater

  mischief, set them at liberty. With this addition to their strength

  they took the Gonfalon of Justice from the bearer, and under the

  shadow of authority which it gave them, burned the houses of many

  citizens, selecting those whose owners had publicly or privately

  excited their hatred. Many citizens, to avenge themselves for private

  injuries, conducted them to the houses of their enemies; for it was

  quite sufficient to insure its destruction, if a single voice from the

  mob called out, "To the house of such a one," or if he who bore the

  Gonfalon took the road toward it. All the documents belonging to the

  woolen trade were burned, and after the commission of much violence,

  by way of associating it with something laudable, Salvestro de Medici

  and sixty-three other citizens were made knights, among whom were

  Benedetto and Antonio degli Alberti, Tommaso Strozzi and others

  similarly their friends; though many received the honor against their

  wills. It was a remarkable peculiarity of the riots, that many who had

  their houses burned, were on the same day, and by the same party made

  knights; so close were the kindness and the injury together. This

  circumstance occurred to Luigi Guicciardini, Gonfalonier of Justice.

  In this tremendous uproar, the Signory, finding themselves abandoned

  by their armed force, by the leaders of the arts, and by the

  Gonfaloniers, became dismayed; for none had come to their assistance

  in obedience to orders; and of the sixteen Gonfalons, the ensign of

  the Golden Lion and of the Vaio, under Giovenco della Stufa and

  Giovanni Cambi alone appeared; and these, not being joined by any

  other, soon withdrew. Of the citizens, on the other hand, some, seeing

  the fury of this unreasonable multitude and the palace abandoned,

  remained within doors; others followed the armed mob, in the hope that

  by being among them, they might more easily protect their own houses

  or those of their friends. The power of the plebeians was thus

  increased and that of the Signory weakened. The tumult continued all

  day, and at night the rioters halted near the palace of Stefano,

  behind the church of St. Barnabas. Their number exceeded six thousand,

  and before daybreak they obtained by threats the ensigns of the

  trades, with which and the Gonfalon of Justice, when morning came,

  they proceeded to the palace of the provost, who refusing to surrender

  it to them, they took possession of it by force.

  The Signory, desirous of a compromise, since they could not restrain

  them by force, appointed four of the Colleagues to proceed to the

  palace of the provost, and endeavor to learn what was their intention.

  They found that the leaders of the plebeians, with the Syndics of the

  trades and some citizens, had resolved to signify their wishes to the

  Signory. They therefore returned with four deputies of the plebeians,

  who demanded that the woolen trade should not be allowed to have a

  foreign judge; that there should be formed three new companies of the

  arts; namely, one for the wool combers and dyers, one for the barbers,

  doublet-makers, tailors, and such like, and the third for the lowest

  class of people. They required that the three new arts should f
urnish

  two Signors; the fourteen minor arts, three; and that the Signory

  should provide a suitable place of assembly for them. They also made

  it a condition that no member of these companies should be expected

  during two years to pay any debt that amounted to less than fifty

  ducats; that the bank should take no interest on loans already

  contracted, and that only the principal sum should be demanded; that

  the condemned and the banished should be forgiven, and the admonished

  should be restored to participation in the honors of government.

  Besides these, many other articles were stipulated in favor of their

  friends, and a requisition made that many of their enemies should be

  exiled and admonished. These demands, though grievous and dishonorable

  to the republic, were for fear of further violence granted, by the

  joint deliberation of the Signors, Colleagues, and Council of the

  people. But in order to give it full effect, it was requisite that the

  Council of the Commune should also give its consent; and, as they

  could not assemble two councils during the same day it was necessary

  to defer it till the morrow. However the trades appeared content, the

  plebeians satisfied; and both promised, that these laws being

  confirmed, every disturbance should cease.

  On the following morning, while the Council of the Commune were in

  consultation, the impatient and volatile multitude entered the piazza,

  under their respective ensigns, with loud and fearful shouts, which

  struck terror into all the Council and Signory; and Guerrente

  Marignolli, one of the latter, influenced more by fear than anything

  else, under pretense of guarding the lower doors, left the chamber and

  fled to his house. He was unable to conceal himself from the

  multitude, who, however, took no notice, except that, upon seeing him,

  they insisted that all the Signors should quit the palace, and

  declared that if they refused to comply, their houses should be burned

  and their families put to death.

  The law had now been passed; the Signors were in their own apartments;

  the Council had descended from the chamber, and without leaving the

  palace, hopeless of saving the city, they remained in the lodges and

  courts below, overwhelmed with grief at seeing such depravity in the

  multitude, and such perversity or fear in those who might either have

  restrained or suppressed them. The Signory, too, were dismayed and

  fearful for the safety of their country, finding themselves abandoned

  by one of their associates, and without any aid or even advice; when,

  at this moment of uncertainty as to what was about to happen, or what

  would be best to be done, Tommaso Strozzi and Benedetto Alberti,

  either from motives of ambition (being desirous of remaining masters

  of the palace), or because they thought it the most advisable step,

  persuaded them to give way to the popular impulse, and withdraw

  privately to their homes. This advice, given by those who had been the

  leaders of the tumult, although the others yielded, filled Alamanno

  Acciajuoli and Niccolo del Bene, two of the Signors, with anger; and,

  reassuming a little vigor, they said, that if the others would

  withdraw they could not help it, but they would remain as long as they

  continued in office, if they did not in the meantime lose their lives.

  These dissensions redoubled the fears of the Signory and the rage of

  the people, so that the Gonfalonier, disposed rather to conclude his

  magistracy in dishonor than in danger, recommended himself to the care

  of Tommaso Strozzi, who withdrew him from the palace and conducted him

  to his house. The other Signors were, one after another, conveyed in

  the same manner, so that Alamanno and Niccolo, not to appear more

  valiant than wise, seeing themselves left alone, also retired, and the

  palace fell into the hands of the plebeians and the Eight

  Commissioners of War, who had not yet laid down their authority.

  When the plebeians entered the palace, the standard of the Gonfalonier

  of Justice was in the hands of Michael di Lando, a wool comber. This

  man, barefoot, with scarcely anything upon him, and the rabble at his

  heels, ascended the staircase, and, having entered the audience

  chamber of the Signory, he stopped, and turning to the multitude said,

  "You see this palace is now yours, and the city is in your power; what

  do you think ought to be done?" To which they replied, they would have

  him for their Gonfalonier and lord; and that he should govern them and

  the city as he thought best. Michael accepted the command; and, as he

  was a cool and sagacious man, more favored by nature than by fortune,

  he resolved to compose the tumult, and restore peace to the city. To

  occupy the minds of the people, and give himself time to make some

  arrangement, he ordered that one Nuto, who had been appointed

  bargello, or sheriff, by Lapo da Castiglionchio, should be sought. The

  greater part of his followers went to execute this commission; and, to

  commence with justice the government he had acquired by favor, he

  commanded that no one should either burn or steal anything; while, to

  strike terror into all, he caused a gallows to be erected in the court

  of the palace. He began the reform of government by deposing the

  Syndics of the trades, and appointing new ones; he deprived the

  Signory and the Colleagues of their magistracy, and burned the

  balloting purses containing the names of those eligible to office

  under the former government.

  In the meantime, Ser Nuto, being brought by the mob into the court,

  was suspended from the gallows by one foot; and those around having

  torn him to pieces, in little more than a moment nothing remained of

  him but the foot by which he had been tied.

  The Eight Commissioners of War, on the other hand, thinking

  themselves, after the departure of the Signors, left sole masters of

  the city, had already formed a new Signory; but Michael, on hearing

  this, sent them an order to quit the palace immediately; for he wished

  to show that he could govern Florence without their assistance. He

  then assembled the Syndics of the trades, and created as a Signory,

  four from the lowest plebeians; two from the major, and two from the

  minor trades. Besides this, he made a new selection of names for the

  balloting purses, and divided the state into three parts; one composed

  of the new trades, another of the minor, and the third of the major

  trades. He gave to Salvestro de' Medici the revenue of the shops upon

  the Old Bridge; for himself he took the provostry of Empoli, and

  conferred benefits upon many other citizens, friends of the plebeians;

  not so much for the purpose of rewarding their labors, as that they

  might serve to screen him from envy.

  It seemed to the plebeians that Michael, in his reformation of the

  state, had too much favored the higher ranks of the people, and that

  themselves had not a sufficient share in the government to enable them

  to preserve it; and hence, prompted by their usual audacity, they

  again took arms, and coming tumultuously into the court of the palace,
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  each body under their particular ensigns, insisted that the Signory

  should immediately descend and consider new means for advancing their

  well-being and security. Michael, observing their arrogance, was

  unwilling to provoke them, but without further yielding to their

  request, blamed the manner in which it was made, advised them to lay

  down their arms, and promised that then would be conceded to them,

  what otherwise, for the dignity of the state, must of necessity be

  withheld. The multitude, enraged at this reply, withdrew to Santa

  Maria Novella, where they appointed eight leaders for their party,

  with officers, and other regulations to ensure influence and respect;

  so that the city possessed two governments, and was under the

  direction of two distinct powers. These new leaders determined that

  Eight, elected from their trades, should constantly reside in the

  palace with the Signory, and that whatever the Signory should

  determine must be confirmed by them before it became law. They took

  from Salvestro de' Medici and Michael di Lando the whole of what their

  former decrees had granted them, and distributed to many of their

  party offices and emoluments to enable them to support their dignity.

  These resolutions being passed, to render them valid they sent two of

  their body to the Signory, to insist on their being confirmed by the

  Council, with an intimation, that if not granted they would be

  vindicated by force. This deputation, with amazing audacity and

  surpassing presumption, explained their commission to the Signory,

  upbraided the Gonfalonier with the dignity they had conferred upon

  him, the honor they had done him, and with the ingratitude and want of

  respect he had shown toward them. Coming to threats toward the end of

  their discourse, Michael could not endure their arrogance, and

  sensible rather of the dignity of the office he held than of the

  meanness of his origin, determined by extraordinary means to punish

  such extraordinary insolence, and drawing the sword with which he was

  girt, seriously wounded, and cause them to be seized and imprisoned.

  When the fact became known, the multitude were filled with rage, and

  thinking that by their arms they might ensure what without them they

  had failed to effect, they seized their weapons and with the utmost

  fury resolved to force the Signory to consent to their wishes.

  Michael, suspecting what would happen, determined to be prepared, for

  he knew his credit rather required him to be first to the attack than

  to wait the approach of the enemy, or, like his predecessors, dishonor

  both the palace and himself by flight. He therefore drew together a

  good number of citizens (for many began to see their error), mounted

  on horseback, and followed by crowds of armed men, proceeded to Santa

  Maria Novella, to encounter his adversaries. The plebeians, who as

  before observed were influenced by a similar desire, had set out about

  the same time as Michael, and it happened that as each took a

  different route, they did not meet in their way, and Michael, upon his

  return, found the piazza in their possession. The contest was now for

  the palace, and joining in the fight, he soon vanquished them, drove

  part of them out of the city, and compelled the rest to throw down

  their arms and escape or conceal themselves, as well as they could.

  Having thus gained the victory, the tumults were composed, solely by

  the talents of the Gonfalonier, who in courage, prudence, and

  generosity surpassed every other citizen of his time, and deserves to

  be enumerated among the glorious few who have greatly benefited their

  country; for had he possessed either malice or ambition, the republic

  would have been completely ruined, and the city must have fallen under

  greater tyranny than that of the duke of Athens. But his goodness

  never allowed a thought to enter his mind opposed to the universal

  welfare: his prudence enabled him to conduct affairs in such a manner,

  that a great majority of his own faction reposed the most entire