History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

confidence in him; and he kept the rest in awe by the influence of his

  authority. These qualities subdued the plebeians, and opened the eyes

  of the superior artificers, who considered how great must be the folly

  of those, who having overcome the pride of the nobility, could endure

  to submit to the nauseous rule of the rabble.

  CHAPTER V

  New regulations for the elections of the Signory--Confusion in the

  City--Piero degli Albizzi and other citizens condemned to death--

  The Florentines alarmed by the approach of Charles of Durazzo--The

  measures adopted in consequence thereof--Insolent Conduct of

  Giorgio Scali--Benedetto Alberti--Giorgio Scali beheaded.

  By the time Michael di Lando had subdued the plebeians, the new

  Signory was drawn, and among those who composed it, were two persons

  of such base and mean condition, that the desire increased in the

  minds of the people to be freed from the ignominy into which they had

  fallen; and when, upon the first of September, the new Signory entered

  office and the retiring members were still in the palace, the piazza

  being full of armed men, a tumultuous cry arose from the midst of

  them, that none of the lowest of the people should hold office among

  the Signory. The obnoxious two were withdrawn accordingly. The name of

  one was Il Tira, of the other Baroccio, and in their stead were

  elected Giorgio Scali and Francesco di Michele. The company of the

  lowest trade was also dissolved, and its members deprived of office,

  except Michael di Lando, Lorenzo di Puccio and a few others of better

  quality. The honors of government were divided into two parts, one of

  which was assigned to the superior trades, the other to the inferior;

  except that the latter were to furnish five Signors, and the former

  only four. The Gonfalonier was to be chosen alternately from each.

  The government thus composed, restored peace to the city for the time;

  but though the republic was rescued from the power of the lowest

  plebeians, the inferior trades were still more influential than the

  nobles of the people, who, however, were obliged to submit for the

  gratification of the trades, of whose favor they wished to deprive the

  plebeians. The new establishment was supported by all who wished the

  continued subjugation of those who, under the name of the Guelphic

  party, had practiced such excessive violence against the citizens. And

  as among others, thus disposed, were Giorgio Scali, Benedetto Alberti,

  Salvestro di Medici, and Tommaso Strozzi, these four almost became

  princes of the city. This state of the public mind strengthened the

  divisions already commenced between the nobles of the people, and the

  minor artificers, by the ambition of the Ricci and the Albizzi; from

  which, as at different times very serious effects arose, and as they

  will hereafter be frequently mentioned, we shall call the former the

  popular party, the latter the plebeian. This condition of things

  continued three years, during which many were exiled and put to death;

  for the government lived in constant apprehension, knowing that both

  within and without the city many were dissatisfied with them. Those

  within, either attempted or were suspected of attempting every day

  some new project against them; and those without, being under no

  restraint, were continually, by means of some prince or republic,

  spreading reports tending to increase the disaffection.

  Gianozzo da Salerno was at this time in Bologna. He held a command

  under Charles of Durazzo, a descendant of the kings of Naples, who,

  designing to undertake the conquest of the dominions of Queen

  Giovanna, retained his captain in that city, with the concurrence of

  Pope Urban, who was at enmity with the queen. Many Florentine

  emigrants were also at Bologna, in close correspondence with him and

  Charles. This caused the rulers in Florence to live in continual

  alarm, and induced them to lend a willing ear to any calumnies against

  the suspected. While in this disturbed state of feeling, it was

  disclosed to the government that Gianozzo da Salerno was about to

  march to Florence with the emigrants, and that great numbers of those

  within were to rise in arms, and deliver the city to him. Upon this

  information many were accused, the principal of whom were Piero degli

  Albizzi and Carlo Strozzi: and after these Cipriano Mangione, Jacopo

  Sacchetti, Donato Barbadori, Filippo Strozzi, and Giovanni Anselmi,

  the whole of whom, except Carlo Strozzi who fled, were made prisoners;

  and the Signory, to prevent any one from taking arms in their favor,

  appointed Tommaso Strozzi and Benedetto Alberti with a strong armed

  force, to guard the city. The arrested citizens were examined, and

  although nothing was elicited against them sufficient to induce the

  Capitano to find them guilty, their enemies excited the minds of the

  populace to such a degree of outrageous and overwhelming fury against

  them, that they were condemned to death, as it were, by force. Nor was

  the greatness of his family, or his former reputation of any service

  to Piero degli Albizzi, who had once been, of all the citizens, the

  man most feared and honored. Some one, either as a friend to render

  him wise in his prosperity, or an enemy to threaten him with the

  fickleness of fortune, had upon the occasion of his making a feast for

  many citizens, sent him a silver bowl full of sweetmeats, among which

  a large nail was found, and being seen by many present, was taken for

  a hint to him to fix the wheel of fortune, which, having conveyed him

  to the top, must if the rotation continued, also bring him to the

  bottom. This interpretation was verified, first by his ruin, and

  afterward by his death.

  After this execution the city was full of consternation, for both

  victors and vanquished were alike in fear; but the worst effects arose

  from the apprehensions of those possessing the management of affairs;

  for every accident, however trivial, caused them to commit fresh

  outrages, either by condemnations, admonitions, or banishment of

  citizens; to which must be added, as scarcely less pernicious, the

  frequent new laws and regulations which were made for defense of the

  government, all of which were put in execution to the injury of those

  opposed to their faction. They appointed forty-six persons, who, with

  the Signory, were to purge the republic of all suspected by the

  government. They admonished thirty-nine citizens, ennobled many of the

  people, and degraded many nobles to the popular rank. To strengthen

  themselves against external foes, they took into their pay John

  Hawkwood, an Englishman of great military reputation, who had long

  served the pope and others in Italy. Their fears from without were

  increased by a report that several bodies of men were being assembled

  by Charles of Durazzo for the conquest of Naples, and many Florentine

  emigrants were said to have joined him. Against these dangers, in

  addition to the forces which had been raised, large sums of money were

  provided; and Charles, having arrived at Arezzo, obtained from the

&
nbsp; Florentines 40,000 ducats, and promised he would not molest them. His

  enterprise was immediately prosecuted, and having occupied the kingdom

  of Naples, he sent Queen Giovanna a prisoner into Hungary. This

  victory renewed the fears of those who managed the affairs of

  Florence, for they could not persuade themselves that their money

  would have a greater influence on the king's mind than the friendship

  which his house had long retained for the Guelphs, whom they so

  grievously oppressed.

  This suspicion increasing, multiplied oppressions; which again,

  instead of diminishing the suspicion, augmented it; so that most men

  lived in the utmost discontent. To this the insolence of Giorgio Scali

  and Tommaso Strozzi (who by their popular influence overawed the

  magistrates) also contributed, for the rulers were apprehensive that

  by the power these men possessed with the plebeians they could set

  them at defiance; and hence it is evident that not only to good men,

  but even to the seditious, this government appeared tyrannical and

  violent. To put a period to the outrageous conduct of Giorgio, it

  happened that a servant of his accused Giovanni di Cambio of practices

  against the state, but the Capitano declared him innocent. Upon this,

  the judge determined to punish the accuser with the same penalties

  that the accused would have incurred had he been guilty, but Giorgio

  Scali, unable to save him either by his authority or entreaties,

  obtained the assistance of Tommaso Strozzi, and with a multitude of

  armed men, set the informer at liberty and plundered the palace of the

  Capitano, who was obliged to save himself by flight. This act excited

  such great and universal animosity against him, that his enemies began

  to hope they would be able to effect his ruin, and also to rescue the

  city from the power of the plebeians, who for three years had held her

  under their arrogant control.

  To the realization of this design the Capitano greatly contributed,

  for the tumult having subsided, he presented himself before the

  signors, and said "He had cheerfully undertaken the office to which

  they had appointed him, for he thought he should serve upright men who

  would take arms for the defense of justice, and not impede its

  progress. But now that he had seen and had experience of the

  proceedings of the city, and the manner in which affairs were

  conducted, that dignity which he had voluntarily assumed with the hope

  of acquiring honor and emolument, he now more willingly resigned, to

  escape from the losses and danger to which he found himself exposed."

  The complaint of the Capitano was heard with the utmost attention by

  the Signory, who promising to remunerate him for the injury he had

  suffered and provide for his future security, he was satisfied. Some

  of them then obtained an interview with certain citizens who were

  thought to be lovers of the common good, and least suspected by the

  state; and in conjunction with these, it was concluded that the

  present was a favorable opportunity for rescuing the city from Giorgio

  and the plebeians, the last outrage he had committed having completely

  alienated the great body of the people from him. They judged it best

  to profit by the occasion before the excitement had abated, for they

  knew that the favor of the mob is often gained or lost by the most

  trifling circumstance; and more certainly to insure success, they

  determined, if possible, to obtain the concurrence of Benedetto

  Alberti, for without it they considered their enterprise to be

  dangerous.

  Benedetto was one of the richest citizens, a man of unassuming

  manners, an ardent lover of the liberties of his country, and one to

  whom tyrannical measures were in the highest degree offensive; so that

  he was easily induced to concur in their views and consent to

  Giorgio's ruin. His enmity against the nobles of the people and the

  Guelphs, and his friendship for the plebeians, were caused by the

  insolence and tyrannical proceedings of the former; but finding that

  the plebeians had soon become quite as insolent, he quickly separated

  himself from them; and the injuries committed by them against the

  citizens were done wholly without his consent. So that the same

  motives which made him join the plebeians induced him to leave them.

  Having gained Benedetto and the leaders of the trades to their side,

  they provided themselves with arms and made Giorgio prisoner. Tommaso

  fled. The next day Giorgio was beheaded; which struck so great a

  terror into his party, that none ventured to express the slightest

  disapprobation, but each seemed anxious to be foremost in defense of

  the measure. On being led to execution, in the presence of that people

  who only a short time before had idolized him, Giorgio complained of

  his hard fortune, and the malignity of those citizens who, having done

  him an undeserved injury, had compelled him to honor and support a

  mob, possessing neither faith nor gratitude. Observing Benedetto

  Alberti among those who had armed themselves for the preservation of

  order, he said, "Do you, too, consent, Benedetto, that this injury

  shall be done to me? Were I in your place and you in mine, I would

  take care that no one should injure you. I tell you, however, this day

  is the end of my troubles and the beginning of yours." He then blamed

  himself for having confided too much in a people who may be excited

  and inflamed by every word, motion, and breath of suspicion. With

  these complaints he died in the midst of his armed enemies, delighted

  at his fall. Some of his most intimate associates were also put to

  death, and their bodies dragged about by the mob.

  CHAPTER VI

  Confusion and riots in the city--Reform of government in

  opposition to the plebeians--Injuries done to those who favored

  the plebeians--Michael di Lando banished--Benedetto Alberti hated

  by the Signory--Fears excited by the coming of Louis of Anjou--The

  Florentines purchase Arezzo--Benedetto Alberti becomes suspected

  and is banished--His discourse upon leaving the city--Other

  citizens banished and admonished--War with Giovanni Galeazzo, duke

  of Milan.

  The death of Giorgio caused very great excitement; many took arms at

  the execution in favor of the Signory and the Capitano; and many

  others, either for ambition or as a means for their own safety, did

  the same. The city was full of conflicting parties, who each had a

  particular end in view, and wished to carry it into effect before they

  disarmed. The ancient nobility, called the GREAT, could not bear to be

  deprived of public honors; for the recovery of which they used their

  utmost exertions, and earnestly desired that authority might be

  restored to the Capitani di Parte. The nobles of the people and the

  major trades were discontented at the share the minor trades and

  lowest of the people possessed in the government; while the minor

  trades were desirous of increasing their influence, and the lowest

  people were apprehensive of losing the companies of their trades and

  the
authority which these conferred.

  Such opposing views occasioned Florence, during a year, to be

  disturbed by many riots. Sometimes the nobles of the people took arms;

  sometimes the major and sometimes the minor trades and the lowest of

  the people; and it often happened that, though in different parts, all

  were at once in insurrection. Hence many conflicts took place between

  the different parties or with the forces of the palace; for the

  Signory sometimes yielding, and at other times resisting, adopted such

  remedies as they could for these numerous evils. At length, after two

  assemblies of the people, and many Balias appointed for the

  reformation of the city; after much toil, labor, and imminent danger,

  a government was appointed, by which all who had been banished since

  Salvestro de' Medici was Gonfalonier were restored. They who had

  acquired distinctions or emoluments by the Balia of 1378 were deprived

  of them. The honors of government were restored to the Guelphic party;

  the two new Companies of the Trades were dissolved, and all who had

  been subject to them assigned to their former companies. The minor

  trades were not allowed to elect the Gonfalonier of Justice, their

  share of honors was reduced from a half to a third; and those of the

  highest rank were withdrawn from them altogether. Thus the nobles of

  the people and the Guelphs repossessed themselves of the government,

  which was lost by the plebeians after it had been in their possession

  from 1378 to 1381, when these changes took place.

  The new establishment was not less injurious to the citizens, or less

  troublesome at its commencement than that of the plebeians had been;

  for many of the nobles of the people, who had distinguished themselves

  as defenders of the plebeians, were banished, with a great number of

  the leaders of the latter, among whom was Michael di Lando; nor could

  all the benefits conferred upon the city by his authority, when in

  danger from the lawless mob, save him from the rabid fury of the party

  that was now in power. His good offices evidently excited little

  gratitude in his countrymen. The neglect of their benefactors is an

  error into which princes and republics frequently fall; and hence

  mankind, alarmed by such examples, as soon as they begin to perceive

  the ingratitude of their rulers, set themselves against them.

  As these banishments and executions had always been offensive to

  Benedetto Alberti, they continued to disgust him, and he censured them

  both publicly and privately. The leaders of the government began to

  fear him, for they considered him one of the most earnest friends of

  the plebeians, and thought he had not consented to the death of

  Giorgio Scali from disapprobation of his proceeding, but that he might

  be left himself without a rival in the government. His discourse and

  his conduct alike served to increase their suspicions, so that all the

  ruling party had their eyes upon him, and eagerly sought an

  opportunity of crushing him.

  During this state of things, external affairs were not of serious

  importance, for some which ensued were productive of apprehension

  rather than of injury. At this time Louis of Anjou came into Italy, to

  recover the kingdom of Naples for Queen Giovanna, and drive out

  Charles of Durazzo. His coming terrified the Florentines; for Charles,

  according to the custom of old friends, demanded their assistance, and

  Louis, like those who seek new alliances, required their neutrality.

  The Florentines, that they might seem to comply with the request of

  Louis, and at the same time assist Charles, discharged from their

  service Sir John Hawkwood, and transferred him to that of Pope Urban,

  who was friendly to Charles; but this deceit was at once detected, and

  Louis considered himself greatly injured by the Florentines. While the

  war was carried on between Louis and Charles in Puglia, new forces

  were sent from France in aid of Louis, and on arriving in Tuscany,