History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

were by the emigrants of Arezzo conducted to that city, and took it

  from those who held possession for Charles. And when they were about

  to change the government of Florence, as they had already done that of

  Arezzo, Louis died, and the order of things in Puglia and in Tuscany

  was changed accordingly; for Charles secured the kingdom, which had

  been all but lost, and the Florentines, who were apprehensive for

  their own city, purchased Arezzo from those who held it for Louis.

  Charles, having secured Puglia, went to take possession of Hungary, to

  which he was heir, leaving, with his wife, his children Ladislaus and

  Giovanna, who were yet infants. He took possession of Hungary, but was

  soon after slain there.

  As great rejoicings were made in Florence on account of this

  acquisition as ever took place in any city for a real victory, which

  served to exhibit the public and private wealth of the people, many

  families endeavoring to vie with the state itself in displays of

  magnificence. The Alberti surpassed all others; the tournaments and

  exhibitions made by them were rather suitable for a sovereign prince

  than for any private individuals. These things increased the envy with

  which the family was regarded, and being joined with suspicions which

  the state entertained of Benedetto, were the causes of his ruin. The

  rulers could not endure him, for it appeared as if, at any moment,

  something might occur, which, with the favor of his friends, would

  enable him to recover his authority, and drive them out of the city.

  While in this state of suspicion and jealousy, it happened that while

  he was Gonfalonier of the Companies, his son-in-law, Filippo

  Magalotti, was drawn Gonfalonier of Justice; and this circumstance

  increased the fears of the government, for they thought it would

  strengthen Benedetto's influence, and place the state in the greater

  peril. Anxious to provide a remedy, without creating much disturbance,

  they induced Bese Magalotti, his relative and enemy, to signify to the

  Signory that Filippo, not having attained the age required for the

  exercise of that office, neither could nor ought to hold it.

  The question was examined by the signors, and part of them out of

  hatred, others in order to avoid disunion among themselves, declared

  Filippo ineligible to the dignity, and in his stead was drawn Bardo

  Mancini, who was quite opposed to the plebeian interests, and an

  inveterate foe of Benedetto. This man, having entered upon the duties

  of his office, created a /Balia/ for the reformation of the state,

  which banished Benedetto Alberti and admonished all the rest of his

  family except Antonio. Before his departure, Benedetto called them

  together, and observing their melancholy demeanor, said, "You see, my

  fathers, and you the elders of our house, how fortune has ruined me

  and threatened you. I am not surprised at this, neither ought you to

  be so, for it always happens thus to those who among a multitude of

  the wicked, wish to act rightly, and endeavor to sustain, what the

  many seek to destroy. The love of my country made me take part with

  Salvestro de Medici and afterward separated me from Giorgio Scali. The

  same cause compelled me to detest those who now govern, who having

  none to punish them, will allow no one to reprove their misdeeds. I am

  content that my banishment should deliver them from the fears they

  entertain, not of me only, but of all who they think perceives or is

  acquainted wit their tyrannical and wicked proceedings; and they have

  aimed their first blow at me, in order the more easily to oppress you.

  I do not grieve on my own account; for those honors which my country

  bestowed upon me while free, she cannot in her slavery take from me;

  and the recollection of my past life will always give me greater

  pleasure than the pain imparted by the sorrows of exile. I deeply

  regret that my country is left a prey to the greediness and pride of

  the few who keep her in subjection. I grieve for you; for I fear that

  the evils which this day cease to affect me, and commence with you,

  will pursue you with even greater malevolence than they have me.

  Comfort, then, each other; resolve to bear up against every

  misfortune, and conduct yourselves in such a manner, that when

  disasters befall you (and there will be many), every one may know they

  have come upon you undeservedly." Not to give a worse impression of

  his virtue abroad than he had done at home, he made a journey to the

  sepulcher of Christ, and while upon his return, died at Rhodes. His

  remains were brought to Florence, and interred with all possible

  honors, by those who had persecuted him, when alive, with every

  species of calumny and injustice.

  The family of the Alberti was not the only injured party during these

  troubles of the city; for many others were banished and admonished. Of

  the former were Piero Benini, Matteo Alderotti, Giovanni and Francesco

  del Bene, Giovanni Benci, Andrea Adimari, and with them many members

  of the minor trades. Of the admonished were the Covini, Benini,

  Rinucci, Formiconi, Corbizzi, Manelli, and Alderotti. It was customary

  to create the Balia for a limited time; and when the citizens elected

  had effected the purpose of their appointment, they resigned the

  office from motives of good feeling and decency, although the time

  allowed might not have expired. In conformity with this laudable

  practice, the Balia of that period, supposing they had accomplished

  all that was expected of them, wished to retire; but when the

  multitude were acquainted with their intention, they ran armed to the

  palace, and insisted, that before resigning their power, many other

  persons should be banished and admonished. This greatly displeased the

  signors; but without disclosing the extent of their displeasure, they

  contrived to amuse the multitude with promises, till they had

  assembled a sufficient body of armed men, and then took such measures,

  that fear induced the people to lay aside the weapons which madness

  had led them to take up. Nevertheless, in some degree to gratify the

  fury of the mob, and to reduce the authority of the plebeian trades,

  it was provided, that as the latter had previously possessed a third

  of the honors, they should in future have only a fourth. That there

  might always be two of the signors particularly devoted to the

  government, they gave authority to the Gonfalonier of Justice, and

  four others, to form a ballot-purse of select citizens, from which, in

  every Signory, two should be drawn.

  This government from its establishment in 1381, till the alterations

  now made, had continued six years; and the internal peace of the city

  remained undisturbed until 1393. During this time, Giovanni Galeazzo

  Visconti, usually called the Count of Virt�, imprisoned his uncle

  Bernabo, and thus became sovereign of the whole of Lombardy. As he had

  become duke of Milan by fraud, he designed to make himself king of

  Italy by force. In 1391 he commenced a spirited attack upon the

  Florentines; but such various changes occurred in the course of the
r />   war, that he was frequently in greater danger than the Florentines

  themselves, who, though they made a brave and admirable defense, for a

  republic, must have been ruined, if he had survived. As it was, the

  result was attended with infinitely less evil than their fears of so

  powerful an enemy had led them to apprehend; for the duke having taken

  Bologna, Pisa, Perugia, and Sienna, and prepared a diadem with which

  to be crowned king of Italy at Florence, died before he had tasted the

  fruit of his victories, or the Florentines began to feel the effect of

  their disasters.

  CHAPTER VII

  Maso degli Albizzi--His violence excites the anger of the people--

  They have recourse to Veri de' Medici--The modesty of Veri--He

  refuses to assume the dignity of prince, and appeases the people--

  Discourse of Veri to the Signory--The banished Florentines

  endeavor to return--They secretly enter the city and raise a

  tumult--Some of them slain, others taken to the church of St.

  Reparata--A conspiracy of exiles supported by the duke of Milan--

  The conspiracy discovered and the parties punished--Various

  enterprises of the Florentines--Taking of Pisa--War with the king

  of Naples--Acquisition of Cortona.

  During the war with the duke of Milan the office of Gonfalonier of

  Justice fell to Maso degli Albizzi, who by the death of Piero in 1379,

  had become the inveterate enemy of the Alberti: and as party feeling

  is incapable either of repose or abatement, he determined,

  notwithstanding Benedetto had died in exile, that before the

  expiration of his magistracy, he would revenge himself on the

  remainder of that family. He seized the opportunity afforded by a

  person, who on being examined respecting correspondence maintained

  with the rebels, accused Andrea and Alberto degli Alberti of such

  practices. They were immediately arrested, which so greatly excited

  the people, that the Signory, having provided themselves with an armed

  force, called the citizens to a general assembly or parliament, and

  appointed a Balia, by whose authority many were banished, and a new

  ballot for the offices of government was made. Among the banished were

  nearly all the Alberti; many members of the trades were admonished,

  and some put to death. Stung by these numerous injuries, the trades

  and the lowest of the people rose in arms, considering themselves

  despoiled both of honor and life. One body of them assembled in the

  piazza; another ran to the house of Veri de' Medici, who, after the

  death of Salvestro, was head of the family. The Signory, in order to

  appease those who came to the piazza or court of the palace, gave them

  for leaders, with the ensigns of the Guelphs and of the people in

  their hands, Rinaldo Gianfigliazzi, and Donato Acciajuoli, both men of

  the popular class, and more attached to the interests of the plebeians

  than any other. Those who went to the house of Veri de' Medici, begged

  that he would be pleased to undertake the government, and free them

  from the tyranny of those citizens who were destroying the peace and

  safety of the commonwealth.

  It is agreed by all who have written concerning the events of this

  period, that if Veri had had more ambition than integrity he might

  without any impediment have become prince of the city; for the

  unfeeling treatment which, whether right or wrong, had been inflicted

  upon the trades and their friends, had so excited the minds of men to

  vengeance, that all they required was some one to be their leader. Nor

  were there wanting those who could inform him of the state of public

  feeling; for Antonio de' Medici with whom he had for some time been

  upon terms of most intimate friendship, endeavored to persuade him to

  undertake the government of the republic. To this Veri replied: "Thy

  menaces when thou wert my enemy, never alarmed me; nor shall thy

  counsel, now when thou art my friend, do me any harm." Then, turning

  toward the multitude, he bade them be of good cheer; for he would be

  their defender, if they would allow themselves to be advised by him.

  He then went, accompanied by a great number of citizens, to the

  piazza, and proceeded directly to the audience chamber of the Signory,

  whom he addressed to this effect: That he could not regret having

  lived so as to gain the love of the Florentines; but he was sorry they

  had formed an opinion of him which his past life had not warranted;

  for never having done anything that could be construed as either

  factious or ambitious, he could not imagine how it had happened, that

  they should think him willing to stir up strife as a discontented

  person, or usurp the government of his country like an ambitious one.

  He therefore begged that the infatuation of the multitude might not

  injure him in their estimation; for, to the utmost of his power, their

  authority should be restored. He then recommended them to use good

  fortune with moderation; for it would be much better to enjoy an

  imperfect victory with safety to the city, than a complete one at her

  ruin. The Signory applauded Veri's conduct; begged he would endeavor

  to prevent recourse to arms, and promised that what he and the other

  citizens might deem most advisable should be done. Veri then returned

  to the piazza, where the people who had followed him were joined by

  those led by Donato and Rinaldo, and informed the united companies

  that he had found the Signory most kindly disposed toward them; that

  many things had been taken into consideration, which the shortness of

  time, and the absence of the magistrates, rendered incapable of being

  finished. He therefore begged they would lay down their arms and obey

  the Signory; assuring them that humility would prevail rather than

  pride, entreaties rather than threats; and if they would take his

  advice, their privileges and security would remain unimpaired. He thus

  induced them to return peaceably to their homes.

  The disturbance having subsided, the Signory armed the piazza,

  enrolled 2,000 of the most trusty citizens, who were divided equally

  by Gonfalons, and ordered to be in readiness to give their assistance

  whenever required; and they forbade the use of arms to all who were

  not thus enrolled. Having adopted these precautionary measures, they

  banished and put to death many of those members of the trades who had

  shown the greatest audacity in the late riots; and to invest the

  office of Gonfalonier of Justice with more authoritative majesty, they

  ordered that no one should be eligible to it, under forty-five years

  of age. Many other provisions for the defense of the state were made,

  which appeared intolerable to those against whom they were directed,

  and were odious even to the friends of the Signory themselves, for

  they could not believe a government to be either good or secure, which

  needed so much violence for its defense, a violence excessively

  offensive, not only to those of the Alberti who remained in the city,

  and to the Medici, who felt themselves injured by these proceedings,

  but also to many others. The first who attempted
resistance was

  Donato, the son of Jacopo Acciajuoli, who thought of great authority,

  and the superior rather than the equal of Maso degli Albizzi (who on

  account of the events which took place while he was Gonfalonier of

  Justice, was almost at the head of the republic), could not enjoy

  repose amid such general discontent, or, like many others, convert

  social evils to his own private advantage, and therefore resolved to

  attempt the restoration of the exiles to their country, or at least

  their offices to the admonished. He went from one to another,

  disseminating his views, showing that the people would not be

  satisfied, or the ferment of parties subside, without the changes he

  proposed; and declared that if he were in the Signory, he would soon

  carry them into effect. In human affairs, delay causes tedium, and

  haste danger. To avoid what was tedious, Donato Acciajuoli resolved to

  attempt what involved danger. Michele Acciajuoli his relative, and

  Niccolo Ricoveri his friend, were of the Signory. This seemed to

  Donato a conjuncture of circumstances too favorable to be lost, and he

  requested they would propose a law to the councils, which would

  include the restoration of the citizens. They, at his entreaty, spoke

  about the matter to their associates, who replied, that it was

  improper to attempt any innovation in which the advantage was doubtful

  and the danger certain. Upon this, Donato, having in vain tried all

  other means he could think of, excited with anger, gave them to

  understand that since they would not allow the city to be governed

  with peaceful measures, he would try what could be done with arms.

  These words gave so great offense, that being communicated to the

  heads of the government, Donato was summoned, and having appeared, the

  truth was proven by those to whom he had intrusted the message, and he

  was banished to Barletta. Alamanno and Antonio de' Medici were also

  banished, and all those of that family, who were descended from

  Alamanno, with many who, although of the inferior artificers,

  possessed influence with the plebeians. These events took place two

  years after the reform of government effected by Maso degli Albizzi.

  At this time many discontented citizens were at home, and others

  banished in the adjoining states. Of the latter there lived at Bologna

  Picchio Cavicciulli, Tommaso de' Ricci, Antonio de' Medici, Benedetto

  degli Spini, Antonio Girolami, Cristofano di Carlone, and two others

  of the lowest order, all bold young men, and resolved upon returning

  to their country at any hazard. These were secretly told by Piggiello

  and Baroccio Cavicciulli, who, being admonished, lived in Florence,

  that if they came to the city they should be concealed in their house;

  from which they might afterward issue, slay Maso degli Albizzi, and

  call the people to arms, who, full of discontent, would willingly

  arise, particularly as they would be supported by the Ricci, Adimari,

  Medici, Manelli, and many other families. Excited with these hopes, on

  the fourth of August, 1397, they came to Florence, and having entered

  unobserved according to their arrangement, they sent one of their

  party to watch Maso, designing with his death to raise the people.

  Maso was observed to leave his house and proceed to that of an

  apothecary, near the church of San Pietro Maggiore, which he entered.

  The man who went to watch him ran to give information to the other

  conspirators, who took their arms and hastened to the house of the

  apothecary, but found that Maso had gone. However, undaunted with the

  failure of their first attempt, they proceeded to the Old Market,

  where they slew one of the adverse party, and with loud cries of

  "people, arms, liberty, and death to the tyrants," directed their

  course toward the New Market, and at the end of the Calimala slew

  another. Pursuing their course with the same cries, and finding no one

  join them in arms, they stopped at the Loggia Nighittosa, where, from

  an elevated situation, being surrounded with a great multitude,