History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

easily have assembled forces and taken other precautions, if the enemy

  had been close upon them, as they did while he was at a distance.

  Besides this, many would have been disposed to quiet their

  apprehensions of Niccolo, by concluding a peace; particularly, as the

  contest was likely to be of some duration. The desire of the Count di

  Poppi to avenge himself on the inhabitants of San Niccolo, long his

  enemies, occasioned his advice to Piccinino, who adopted it for the

  purpose of pleasing him; and this caused the ruin of both. It seldom

  happens, that the gratification of private feelings, fails to be

  injurious to the general convenience.

  Niccolo, pursuing his good fortune, took Rassina and Chiusi. The Count

  di Poppi advised him to halt in these parts, arguing that he might

  divide his people between Chiusi, Caprese, and the Pieve, render

  himself master of this branch of the Apennines, and descend at

  pleasure into the Casentino, the Val d'Arno, the Val di Chiane, or the

  Val di Tavere, as well as be prepared for every movement of the enemy.

  But Niccolo, considering the sterility of these places, told him, "his

  horses could not eat stones," and went to the Borgo San Sepolcro,

  where he was amicably received, but found that the people of Citta di

  Castello, who were friendly to the Florentines, could not be induced

  to yield to his overtures. Wishing to have Perugia at his disposal, he

  proceeded thither with forty horse, and being one of her citizens, met

  with a kind reception. But in a few days he became suspected, and

  having attempted unsuccessfully to tamper with the legate and people

  of Perugia, he took eight thousand ducats from them, and returned to

  his army. He then set on foot secret measures, to seduce Cortona from

  the Florentines, but the affair being discovered, his attempts were

  fruitless. Among the principal citizens was Bartolomeo di Senso, who

  being appointed to the evening watch of one of the gates, a

  countryman, his friend, told him, that if he went he would be slain.

  Bartolomeo, requesting to know what was meant, he became acquainted

  with the whole affair, and revealed it to the governor of the place,

  who, having secured the leaders of the conspiracy, and doubled the

  guards at the gates, waited till the time appointed for the coming of

  Niccolo, who finding his purpose discovered, returned to his

  encampment.

  CHAPTER VII

  Brescia relieved by Sforza--His other victories--Piccinino is

  recalled into Lombardy--He endeavors to bring the Florentines to

  an engagement--He is routed before Anghiari--Serious disorders in

  the camp of the Florentines after the victory--Death of Rinaldo

  degli Albizzi--His character--Neri Capponi goes to recover the

  Casentino--The Count di Poppi surrenders--His discourse upon

  quitting his possessions.

  While these events were taking place in Tuscany, so little to the

  advantage of the duke, his affairs in Lombardy were in a still worse

  condition. The Count Francesco, as soon as the season would permit,

  took the field with his army, and the Venetians having again covered

  the lake with their galleys, he determined first of all to drive the

  duke from the water; judging, that this once effected, his remaining

  task would be easy. He therefore, with the Venetian fleet, attacked

  that of the duke, and destroyed it. His land forces took the castles

  held for Filippo, and the ducal troops who were besieging Brescia,

  being informed of these transactions, withdrew; and thus, the city,

  after standing a three years' siege, was at length relieved. The count

  then went in quest of the enemy, whose forces were encamped before

  Soncino, a fortress situated upon the River Oglio; these he dislodged

  and compelled to retreat to Cremona, where the duke again collected

  his forces, and prepared for his defense. But the count constantly

  pressing him more closely, he became apprehensive of losing either the

  whole, or the greater part, of his territories; and perceiving the

  unfortunate step he had taken, in sending Niccolo into Tuscany, in

  order to correct his error, he wrote to acquaint him with what had

  transpired, desiring him, with all possible dispatch, to leave Tuscany

  and return to Lombardy.

  In the meantime, the Florentines, under their commissaries, had drawn

  together their forces, and being joined by those of the pope, halted

  at Anghiari, a castle placed at the foot of the mountains that divide

  the Val di Tavere from the Val di Chiane, distant four miles from the

  Borgo San Sepolcro, on a level road, and in a country suitable for the

  evolutions of cavalry or a battlefield. As the Signory had heard of

  the count's victory and the recall of Niccolo, they imagined that

  without again drawing a sword or disturbing the dust under their

  horses' feet, the victory was their own, and the war at an end, they

  wrote to the commissaries, desiring them to avoid an engagement, as

  Niccolo could not remain much longer in Tuscany. These instructions

  coming to the knowledge of Piccinino, and perceiving the necessity of

  his speedy return, to leave nothing unattempted, he determined to

  engage the enemy, expecting to find them unprepared, and not disposed

  for battle. In this determination he was confirmed by Rinaldo, the

  Count di Poppi, and other Florentine exiles, who saw their inevitable

  ruin in the departure of Niccolo, and hoped, that if he engaged the

  enemy, they would either be victorious, or vanquished without

  dishonor. This resolution being adopted, Niccolo led his army,

  unperceived by the enemy, from Citta di Castello to the Borgo, where

  he enlisted two thousand men, who, trusting the general's talents and

  promises, followed him in hope of plunder. Niccolo then led his forces

  in battle array toward Anghiari, and had arrived within two miles of

  the place, when Micheletto Attendulo observed great clouds of dust,

  and conjecturing at once, that it must be occasioned by the enemy's

  approach, immediately called the troops to arms. Great confusion

  prevailed in the Florentine camp, for the ordinary negligence and want

  of discipline were now increased by their presuming the enemy to be at

  a distance, and they were more disposed to fight than to battle; so

  that everyone was unarmed, and some wandering from the camp, either

  led by their desire to avoid the excessive heat, or in pursuit of

  amusement. So great was the diligence of the commissaries and of the

  captain, that before the enemy's arrival, the men were mounted and

  prepared to resist their attack; and as Micheletto was the first to

  observe their approach, he was also first armed and ready to meet

  them, and with his troops hastened to the bridge which crosses the

  river at a short distance from Anghiari. Pietro Giampagolo having

  previous to the surprise, filled up the ditches on either side of the

  road, and leveled the ground between the bridge and Anghiari, and

  Micheletto having taken his position in front of the former, the

  legate and Simoncino, who led the troops of the church, took post on

  the right, and th
e commissaries of the Florentines, with Pietro

  Giampagolo, their captain, on the left; the infantry being drawn up

  along the banks of the river. Thus, the only course the enemy could

  take, was the direct one over the bridge; nor had the Florentines any

  other field for their exertions, excepting that their infantry were

  ordered, in case their cavalry were attacked in flank by the hostile

  infantry, to assail them with their cross bows, and prevent them from

  wounding the flanks of the horses crossing the bridge. Micheletto

  bravely withstood the enemy's charge upon the bridge; but Astorre and

  Francesco Piccinino coming up, with a picked body of men, attacked him

  so vigorously, that he was compelled to give way, and was pushed as

  far as the foot of the hill which rises toward the Borgo d'Anghiari;

  but they were in turn repulsed and driven over the bridge, by the

  troops that took them in flank. The battle continued two hours, during

  which each side had frequent possession of the bridge, and their

  attempts upon it were attended with equal success; but on both sides

  of the river, the disadvantage of Niccolo was manifest; for when his

  people crossed the bridge, they found the enemy unbroken, and the

  ground being leveled, they could man�uvre without difficulty, and the

  weary be relieved by such as were fresh. But when the Florentines

  crossed, Niccolo could not relieve those that were harassed, on

  account of the hindrance interposed by the ditches and embankments on

  each side of the road; thus whenever his troops got possession of the

  bridge, they were soon repulsed by the fresh forces of the

  Florentines; but when the bridge was taken by the Florentines, and

  they passed over and proceeded upon the road, Niccolo having no

  opportunity to reinforce his troops, being prevented by the

  impetuosity of the enemy and the inconvenience of the ground, the rear

  guard became mingled with the van, and occasioned the utmost confusion

  and disorder; they were forced to flee, and hastened at full speed

  toward the Borgo. The Florentine troops fell upon the plunder, which

  was very valuable in horses, prisoners, and military stores, for not

  more than a thousand of the enemy's cavalry reached the town. The

  people of the Borgo, who had followed Niccolo in the hope of plunder,

  became booty themselves, all of them being taken, and obliged to pay a

  ransom. The colors and carriages were also captured. This victory was

  much more advantageous to the Florentines than injurious to the duke;

  for, had they been conquered, Tuscany would have been his own; but he,

  by his defeat, only lost the horses and accoutrements of his army,

  which could be replaced without any very serious expense. Nor was

  there ever an instance of wars being carried on in an enemy's country

  with less injury to the assailants than at this; for in so great a

  defeat, and in a battle which continued four hours, only one man died,

  and he, not from wounds inflicted by hostile weapons, or any honorable

  means, but, having fallen from his horse, was trampled to death.

  Combatants then engaged with little danger; being nearly all mounted,

  covered with armor, and preserved from death whenever they chose to

  surrender, there was no necessity for risking their lives; while

  fighting, their armor defended them, and when they could resist no

  longer, they yielded and were safe.

  This battle, from the circumstances which attended and followed it,

  presents a striking example of the wretched state of military

  discipline in those times. The enemy's forces being defeated and

  driven into the Borgo, the commissaries desired to pursue them, in

  order to make the victory complete, but not a single condottiere or

  soldier would obey, alleging, as a sufficient reason for their

  refusal, that they must take care of the booty and attend to their

  wounded; and, what is still more surprising, the next day, without

  permission from the commissaries, or the least regard for their

  commanders, they went to Arezzo, and, having secured their plunder,

  returned to Anghiari; a thing so contrary to military order and all

  subordination, that the merest shadow of a regular army would easily

  and most justly have wrested from them the victory they had so

  undeservedly obtained. Added to this, the men-at-arms, or heavy-armed

  horse, who had been taken prisoners, whom the commissaries wished to

  be detained that they might not rejoin the enemy, were set at liberty,

  contrary to their orders. It is astonishing, that an army so

  constructed should have sufficient energy to obtain the victory, or

  that any should be found so imbecile as to allow such a disorderly

  rabble to vanquish them. The time occupied by the Florentine forces in

  going and returning from Arezzo, gave Niccolo opportunity of escaping

  from the Borgo, and proceeding toward Romagna. Along with him also

  fled the Florentine exiles, who, finding no hope of their return home,

  took up their abodes in various parts of Italy, each according to his

  own convenience. Rinaldo made choice of Ancona; and, to gain admission

  to the celestial country, having lost the terrestrial, he performed a

  pilgrimage to the holy sepulcher; whence having returned, he died

  suddenly while at table at the celebration of the marriage of one of

  his daughters; an instance of fortune's favor, in removing him from

  the troubles of this world upon the least sorrowful day of his exile.

  Rinaldo d'Albizzi appeared respectable under every change of

  condition; and would have been more so had he lived in a united city,

  for many qualities were injurious to him in a factious community,

  which in an harmonious one would have done him honor.

  When the forces returned from Arezzo, Niccolo being then gone, the

  commissaries presented themselves at the Borgo, the people of which

  were willing to submit to the Florentines; but their offer was

  declined, and while negotiations were pending, the pope's legate

  imagined the commissaries designed to take it from the church. Hard

  words were exchanged and hostilities might have ensued between the

  Florentine and ecclesiastical forces, if the misunderstanding had

  continued much longer; but as it was brought to the conclusion desired

  by the legate, peace was restored.

  While the affair of the Borgo San Sepolcro was in progress, Niccolo

  Piccinino was supposed to have marched toward Rome; other accounts

  said La Marca, and hence the legate and the count's forces moved

  toward Perugia to relieve La Marca or Rome, as the case might be, and

  Bernardo de Medici accompanied them. Neri led the Florentine forces to

  recover the Casentino, and pitched his camp before Rassina, which he

  took, together with Bibbiena, Prato Vecchio, and Romena. From thence

  he proceeded to Poppi and invested it on two sides with his forces, in

  one direction toward the plain of Certomondo, in the other upon the

  hill extending to Fronzole. The count finding himself abandoned to his

  fate, had shut himself up in Poppi, not with any hope of assistance,

  but with a view to make the best terms he could. Neri pressing him, h
e

  offered to capitulate, and obtained reasonable conditions, namely,

  security for himself and family, with leave to take whatever he could

  carry away, on condition of ceding his territories and government to

  the Florentines. When he perceived the full extent of his misfortune,

  standing upon the bridge which crosses the Arno, close to Poppi, he

  turned to Neri in great distress, and said, "Had I well considered my

  own position and the power of the Florentines, I should now have been

  a friend of the republic and congratulating you on your victory, not

  an enemy compelled to supplicate some alleviation of my woe. The

  recent events which to you bring glory and joy, to me are full of

  wretchedness and sorrow. Once I possessed horses, arms, subjects,

  grandeur and wealth: can it be surprising that I part with them

  reluctantly? But as you possess both the power and the inclination to

  command the whole of Tuscany, we must of necessity obey you; and had I

  not committed this error, my misfortune would not have occurred, and

  your liberality could not have been exercised; so, that if you were to

  rescue me from entire ruin, you would give the world a lasting proof

  of your clemency. Therefore, let your pity pass by my fault, and allow

  me to retain this single house to leave to the descendants of those

  from whom your fathers have received innumerable benefits." To this

  Neri replied: "That his having expected great results from men who

  were capable of doing only very little, had led him to commit so great

  a fault against the republic of Florence; that, every circumstance

  considered, he must surrender all those places to the Florentines, as

  an enemy, which he was unwilling to hold as a friend: that he had set

  such an example, as it would be most highly impolitic to encourage;

  for, upon a change of fortune, it might injure the republic, and it

  was not himself they feared, but his power while lord of the

  Casentino. If, however, he could live as a prince in Germany, the

  citizens would be very much gratified; and out of love to those

  ancestors of whom he had spoken, they would be glad to assist him." To

  this, the count, in great anger, replied: "He wished the Florentines

  at a much greater distance." Attempting no longer to preserve the

  least urbanity of demeanor, he ceded the place and all its

  dependencies to the Florentines, and with his treasure, wife, and

  children, took his departure, mourning the loss of a territory which

  his forefathers had held during four hundred years. When all these

  victories were known at Florence, the government and people were

  transported with joy. Benedetto de' Medici, finding the report of

  Niccolo having proceeded either to Rome or to La Marca, incorrect,

  returned with his forces to Neri, and they proceeded together to

  Florence, where the highest honors were decreed to them which it was

  customary with the city to bestow upon her victorious citizens, and

  they were received by the Signory, the Capitani di Parte, and the

  whole city, in triumphal pomp.

  BOOK VI

  CHAPTER I

  Reflections on the object of war and the use of victory--Niccolo

  reinforces his army--The duke of Milan endeavors to recover the

  services of Count Francesco Sforza--Suspicions of the Venetians--

  They acquire Ravenna--The Florentines purchase the Borgo San

  Sepolcro of the pope--Piccinino makes an excursion during the

  winter--The count besieged in his camp before Martinengo--The

  insolence of Niccolo Piccinino--The duke in revenge makes peace

  with the league--Sforza assisted by the Florentines.

  Those who make war have always and very naturally designed to enrich

  themselves and impoverish the enemy; neither is victory sought or

  conquest desirable, except to strengthen themselves and weaken the

  enemy. Hence it follows, that those who are impoverished by victory or

  debilitated by conquest, must either have gone beyond, or fallen short

  of, the end for which wars are made. A republic or a prince is