History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

and duke, each to the territories of their sovereign. As this attempt

  had not occasioned any tumult in Florence, contrary to the rebels'

  expectation, and the troops they had hired were in want of pay, terms

  of peace were proposed, and easily arranged. The revolted Florentines,

  thus deprived of hope, dispersed themselves in various places.

  Diotisalvi Neroni withdrew to Ferrara, where he was received and

  entertained by the Marquis Borso. Niccolo Soderini went to Ravenna,

  where, upon a small pension allowed by the Venetians, he grew old and

  died. He was considered a just and brave man, but over-cautious and

  slow to determine, a circumstance which occasioned him, when

  Gonfalonier of Justice, to lose the opportunity of victory which he

  would have gladly recovered when too late.

  Upon the restoration of peace, those who remained victorious in

  Florence, as if unable to convince themselves they had conquered,

  unless they oppressed not merely their enemies, but all whom they

  suspected, prevailed upon Bardo Altoviti, then Gonfalonier of Justice,

  to deprive many of the honors of government, and to banish several

  more. They exercised their power so inconsiderately, and conducted

  themselves in such an arbitrary manner, that it seemed as if fortune

  and the Almighty had given the city up to them for a prey. Piero knew

  little of these things, and was unable to remedy even the little he

  knew, on account of his infirmities; his body being so contracted that

  he could use no faculty but that of speech. All he could do was to

  admonish the leading men, and beg they would conduct themselves with

  greater moderation, and not by their violence effect their country's

  ruin. In order to divert the city, he resolved to celebrate the

  marriage of his son Lorenzo with Clarice degli Orsini with great

  splendor; and it was accordingly solemnized with all the display

  suitable to the exalted rank of the parties. Feasts, dancing, and

  antique representations occupied many days; at the conclusion of

  which, to exhibit the grandeur of the house of Medici and of the

  government, two military spectacles were presented, one performed by

  men on horseback, who went through the evolutions of a field

  engagement, and the other representing the storming of a town;

  everything being conducted with admirable order and the greatest

  imaginable brilliancy.

  During these transactions in Florence, the rest of Italy, though at

  peace, was filled with apprehension of the power of the Turks, who

  continued to attack the Christians, and had taken Negropont, to the

  great disgrace and injury of the Christian name. About this time died

  Borso, marquis of Ferrara, who was succeeded by his brother Ercole.

  Gismondo da Rimini, the inveterate enemy of the church also expired,

  and his natural brother Roberto, who was afterward one of the best

  generals of Italy, succeeded him. Pope Paul died, and was succeeded by

  Sixtus IV. previously called Francesco da Savona, a man of the very

  lowest origin, who by his talents had become general of the order of

  St. Francis, and afterward cardinal. He was the first who began to

  show how far a pope might go, and how much that which was previously

  regarded as sinful lost its iniquity when committed by a pontiff.

  Among others of his family were Piero and Girolamo, who, according to

  universal belief, were his sons, though he designated them by terms

  reflecting less scandal on his character. Piero being a priest, was

  advanced to the dignity of a cardinal, with the title of St. Sixtus.

  To Girolamo he gave the city of Furli, taken from Antonio Ordelaffi,

  whose ancestors had held that territory for many generations. This

  ambitious method of procedure made him more regarded by the princes of

  Italy, and all sought to obtain his friendship. The duke of Milan gave

  his natural daughter Caterina to Girolamo, with the city of Imola,

  which he had taken from Taddeo degli Alidossi, as her portion. New

  matrimonial alliances were formed between the duke and king Ferrando;

  Elisabetta, daughter of Alfonso, the king's eldest son, being united

  to Giovan Galeazzo, the eldest son of the duke.

  Italy being at peace, the principal employment of her princes was to

  watch each other, and strengthen their own influence by new alliances,

  leagues, or friendships. But in the midst of this repose, Florence

  endured great oppression from her principal citizens, and the

  infirmities of Piero incapacitated him from restraining their

  ambition. However, to relieve his conscience, and, if possible, to

  make them ashamed of their conduct, he sent for them to his house, and

  addressed them in the following words: "I never thought a time would

  come when the behavior of my friends would compel me to esteem and

  desire the society of my enemies, and wish that I had been defeated

  rather than victorious; for I believed myself to be associated with

  those who would set some bounds to their avarice, and who, after

  having avenged themselves on their enemies, and lived in their country

  with security and honor, would be satisfied. But now I find myself

  greatly deceived, unacquainted with the ambition of mankind, and least

  of all with yours; for, not satisfied with being masters of so great a

  city, and possessing among yourselves those honors, dignities, and

  emoluments which used to be divided among many citizens; not contented

  with having shared among a few the property of your enemies, or with

  being able to oppress all others with public burdens, while you

  yourselves are exempt from them, and enjoy all the public offices of

  profit you must still further load everyone with ill usage. You

  plunder your neighbors of their wealth; you sell justice; you evade

  the law; you oppress the timid and exalt the insolent. Nor is there,

  throughout all Italy, so many and such shocking examples of violence

  and avarice as in this city. Has our country fostered us only to be

  her destroyer? Have we been victorious only to effect her ruin? Has

  she honored us that we may overwhelm her with disgrace? Now, by that

  faith which is binding upon all good men, I promise you, that if you

  still conduct yourselves so as to make me regret my victory, I will

  adopt such measures as shall cause you bitterly to repent of having

  misused it." The reply of the citizens accorded with the time and

  circumstances, but they did not forego their evil practices; so that,

  in consequence, Piero sent for Agnolo Acciajuoli to come secretly to

  Cafaggiolo, and discussed with him at great length the condition of

  the city; and doubtless, had he not been prevented by death, he would

  have called home the exiles as a check upon the rapine of the opposite

  party. But these honorable designs were frustrated; for, sinking under

  bodily infirmities and mental anguish, he expired in the fifty-third

  year of his age. His goodness and virtue were not duly appreciated by

  his country, principally from his having, until almost the close of

  his life, been associated with Cosmo, and the few years he survived

  being spent in civil discord and constant debility. Piero
was buried

  in the church of St. Lorenzo, near his father, and his obsequies were

  performed with all the pomp and solemnity due to his exalted station.

  He left two sons, Lorenzo and Guiliano, whose extreme youth excited

  alarm in the minds of thinking men, though each gave hopes of future

  usefulness to the republic.

  Among the principal citizens in the government of Florence, and very

  superior to the rest, was Tommaso Soderini, whose prudence and

  authority were well known not only at home, but throughout Italy.

  After Piero's death, the whole city looked up to him; many citizens

  waited upon him at his own house, as the head of the government, and

  several princes addressed him by letter; but he, impartially

  estimating his own fortune and that of the house of Medici, made no

  reply to the princes' communications, and told the citizens, it was

  not his house, but that of the Medici they ought to visit. To

  demonstrate by his actions the sincerity and integrity of his advice

  he assembled all the heads of noble families in the convent of St.

  Antonio, whither he also brought Lorenzo and Guiliano de' Medici, and

  in a long and serious speech upon the state of the city, the condition

  of Italy, and the views of her princes, he assured them, that if they

  wished to live in peace and unity in Florence, free both from internal

  dissensions and foreign wars, it would be necessary to respect the

  sons of Piero and support the reputation of their house; for men never

  regret their continuance in a course sanctioned by custom while new

  methods are soon adopted and as speedily set aside; and it has always

  been found easier to maintain a power which by its continuance has

  outlived envy, than to raise a new one, which innumerable unforeseen

  causes may overthrow. When Tommaso had concluded, Lorenzo spoke, and,

  though young, with such modesty and discretion that all present felt a

  presentiment of his becoming what he afterward proved to be; and

  before the citizens departed they swore to regard the youths as their

  sons, and the brothers promised to look upon them as their parents.

  After this, Lorenzo and Guiliano were honored as princes, and resolved

  to be guided by the advice of Tommaso Soderini.

  While profound tranquillity prevailed both at home and abroad, no wars

  disturbing the general repose, there arose an unexpected disturbance,

  which came like a presage of future evils. Among the ruined families

  of the party of Luca Pitti, was that of the Nardi; for Salvestro and

  his brothers, the heads of the house, were banished and afterward

  declared rebels for having taken part in the war under Bartolommeo

  Coglione. Bernardo, the brother of Salvestro, was young, prompt, and

  bold, and on account of his poverty being unable to alleviate the

  sorrows of exile, while the peace extinguished all hopes of his return

  to the city, he determined to attempt some means of rekindling the

  war; for a trifling commencement often produces great results, and men

  more readily prosecute what is already begun than originate new

  enterprises. Bernardo had many acquaintances at Prato, and still more

  in the district of Pistoia, particularly among the Palandra, a family

  which, though rustic, was very numerous, and, like the rest of the

  Pistolesi, brought up to slaughter and war. These he knew to be

  discontented, on account of the Florentine magistrates having

  endeavored, perhaps too severely, to check their partiality for

  inveterate feuds and consequence bloodshed. He was also aware that the

  people of Prato considered themselves injured by the pride and avarice

  of their governors, and that some were ill disposed toward Florence;

  therefore all things considered, he hoped to be able to kindle a fire

  in Tuscany (should Prato rebel) which would be fostered by so many,

  that those who might wish to extinguish it would fail in the attempt.

  He communicated his ideas to Diotisalvi Neroni, and asked him, in case

  they should succeed in taking possession of Prato, what assistance

  might be expected from the princes of Italy, by his means? Diotisalvi

  considered the enterprise as imminently dangerous, and almost

  impracticable; but since it presented a fresh chance of attaining his

  object, at the risk of others, he advised him to proceed, and promised

  certain assistance from Bologna and Ferrara, if he could retain Prato

  not less than fifteen days. Bernardo, whom this promise inspired with

  a lively hope of success, proceeded secretly to Prato, and

  communicated with those most disposed to favor him, among whom were

  the Palandra; and having arranged the time and plan, informed

  Diotisalvi of what had been done.

  CHAPTER V

  Bernardo takes possession of Prato, but is not assisted by the

  inhabitants--He is taken, and the tumult appeased--Corruption of

  Florence--The duke of Milan in Florence--The church of Santo

  Spirito destroyed by fire--The rebellion of Volterra, and the

  cause of it--Volterra reduced to obedience by force, in accordance

  with the advice of Lorenzo de' Medici--Volterra pillaged.

  Cesare Petrucci held the office of Provost of Prato for the Florentine

  people, at this period. It is customary with governors of towns,

  similarly situated, to keep the keys of the gates near their persons;

  and whenever, in peaceful times, they are required by any of the

  inhabitants, for entrance or exit, they are usually allowed to be

  taken. Bernardo was aware of this custom, and about daybreak,

  presented himself at the gate which looks toward Pistoia, accompanied

  by the Palandra and about one hundred persons, all armed. Their

  confederates within the town also armed themselves, and one of them

  asked the governor for the keys, alleging, as a pretext, that some one

  from the country wished to enter. The governor not entertaining the

  slightest suspicion, sent a servant with them. When at a convenient

  distance, they were taken by the conspirators, who, opening the gates,

  introduced Bernardo and his followers. They divided themselves into

  two parties, one of which, led by Salvestro, an inhabitant of Prato,

  took possession of the citadel; the other following Bernardo, seized

  the palace, and placed Cesare with all his family in the custody of

  some of their number. They then raised the cry of liberty, and

  proceeded through the town. It was now day, and many of the

  inhabitants hearing the disturbance, ran to the piazza where, learning

  that the fortress and the palace were taken and the governor with all

  his people made prisoners, they were utterly astonished, and could not

  imagine how it had occurred. The eight citizens, possessing the

  supreme authority, assembled in their palace to consider what was best

  to be done. In the meantime, Bernardo and his followers, on going

  round the town, found no encouragement, and being told that the Eight

  had assembled, went and declared the nature of their enterprise, which

  he said was to deliver the country from slavery, reminding them how

  glorious it would be for those who took arms to effect such an

  honorable obje
ct, for they would thus obtain permanent repose and

  everlasting fame. He called to recollection their ancient liberty and

  present condition, and assured them of certain assistance, if they

  would only, for a few days, aid in resisting the forces the

  Florentines might send against them. He said he had friends in

  Florence who would join them as soon as they found the inhabitants

  resolved to support him. His speech did not produce the desired effect

  upon the Eight, who replied that they knew not whether Florence was

  free or enslaved, for that was a matter which they were not called

  upon to decide; but this they knew very well, that for their own part,

  they desired no other liberty than to obey the magistrates who

  governed Florence, from whom they had never received any injury

  sufficient to make them desire a change. They therefore advised him to

  set the governor at liberty, clear the place of his people, and, as

  quickly as possible, withdraw from the danger he had so rashly

  incurred. Bernardo was not daunted by these words, but determined to

  try whether fear could influence the people of Prato, since entreaties

  produced so little effect. In order to terrify them, he determined to

  put Cesare to death, and having brought him out of prison, ordered him

  to be hanged at the windows of the palace. He was already led to the

  spot with a halter around his neck, when seeing Bernardo giving

  directions to hasten his end, he turned to him, and said: "Bernardo,

  you put me to death, thinking that the people of Prato will follow

  you; but the direct contrary will result; for the respect they have

  for the rectors which the Florentine people send here is so great,

  that as soon as they witness the injury inflicted upon me, they will

  conceive such a disgust against you as will inevitably effect your

  ruin. Therefore, it is not by my death, but by the preservation of my

  life, that you can attain the object you have in view; for if I

  deliver your commands, they will be much more readily obeyed, and

  following your directions, we shall soon attain the completion of your

  design." Bernardo, whose mind was not fertile in expedients, thought

  the advice good, and commanded Cesare, on being conducted to a veranda

  which looked upon the piazza, to order the people of Prato to obey

  him, and having done which, Cesare was led back to prison.

  The weakness of the conspirators was obvious; and many Florentines

  residing in the town, assembled together, among whom, Giorgio Ginori,

  a knight of Rhodes, took arms first against them, and attacked

  Bernardo, who traversed the piazza, alternately entreating and

  threatening those who refused to obey him, and being surrounded by

  Giorgio's followers, he was wounded and made prisoner. This being

  done, it was easy to set the governor at liberty and subdue the rest,

  who being few, and divided into several parties, were nearly all

  either secured or slain. An exaggerated report of these transactions

  reached Florence, it being told there that Prato was taken, the

  governor and his friends put to death, and the place filled with the

  enemy; and that Pistoia was also in arms, and most of the citizens in

  the conspiracy. In consequence of this alarming account, the palace as

  quickly filled with citizens, who consulted with the Signory what

  course ought to be adopted. At this time, Roberto da San Severino, one

  of the most distinguished generals of this period, was at Florence,

  and it was therefore determined to send him, with what forces could be

  collected, to Prato, with orders that he should approach the place,

  particularly observe what was going on, and provide such remedies as

  the necessity of the case and his own prudence should suggest. Roberto

  had scarcely passed the fortress of Campi, when he was met by a

  messenger from the governor, who informed him that Bernardo was taken,

  his followers either dispersed or slain, and everything restored to

  order. He consequently returned to Florence, whither Bernardo was

  shortly after conveyed, and when questioned by the magistracy