History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

of all they possessed in Lombardy, if the war had been conducted in

  the same manner as during the preceding year; for by the departure of

  the duke of Lorraine, whose term of service had expired, they were

  reduced to six thousand horse and five thousand foot, while the allies

  had thirteen thousand horse and five thousand foot at their disposal.

  But, as is often the case where several of equal authority are joined

  in command, their want of unity decided the victory to their enemies.

  Federigo, marquis of Mantua, whose influence kept the duke of Calabria

  and Lodovico Sforza within bounds, being dead, differences arose

  between them which soon became jealousies. Giovan Galeazzo, duke of

  Milan, was now of an age to take the government on himself, and had

  married the daughter of the duke of Calabria, who wished his son-in-

  law to exercise the government and not Lodovico; the latter, being

  aware of the duke's design, studied to prevent him from effecting it.

  The position of Lodovico being known to the Venetians, they thought

  they could make it available for their own interests; and hoped, as

  they had often before done, to recover in peace all they had lost by

  war; and having secretly entered into treaty with Lodovico, the terms

  were concluded in August, 1484. When this became known to the rest of

  the allies, they were greatly dissatisfied, principally because they

  found that the places won from the Venetians were to be restored; that

  they were allowed to keep Rovigo and the Polesine, which they had

  taken from the marquis of Ferrara, and besides this retain all the

  pre-eminence and authority over Ferrara itself which they had formerly

  possessed. Thus it was evident to everyone, they had been engaged in a

  war which had cost vast sums of money, during the progress of which

  they had acquired honor, and which was concluded with disgrace; for

  the places wrested from the enemy were restored without themselves

  recovering those they had lost. They were, however, compelled to

  ratify the treaty, on account of the unsatisfactory state of their

  finances, and because the faults and ambition of others had rendered

  them unwilling to put their fortunes to further proof.

  CHAPTER VI

  Affairs of the pope--He is reconciled to Niccolo Vitelli--Discords

  between the Colonnesi and the Orsini--Various events--The war of

  Serezana--Genoa occupied by her archbishop--Death of Sixtus IV.--

  Innocent VIII. elected--Agostino Fregoso gives Serezana to the

  bank of St. Giorgio--Account of the bank of St. Giorgio--War with

  the Genoese for Serezana--Stratagem of the Florentines to attack

  Pietra Santa--Difficulties and final surrender of Pietra Santa--

  The Lucchese lay claim to Pietra Santa--The city of L'Aquila

  revolts against the king of Naples--War between him and the pope--

  The Florentines take the king's party--Peace between the pope and

  the king.

  During these events in Lombardy, the pope sent Lorenzo to invest Citta

  di Castello, for the purpose of expelling Niccolo Vitelli, the place

  having been abandoned to him by the League, for the purpose of

  inducing the pontiff to join them. During the siege, Niccolo's troops

  were led out against the papal forces and routed them. Upon this the

  pope recalled the Count Girolamo from Lombardy with orders first to

  recruit his army at Rome, and then proceed against Citta di Castello.

  But thinking afterward, that it would be better to obtain Niccolo

  Vitello as his friend than to renew hostilities with him, an

  arrangement was entered into by which the latter retained Citta di

  Castello, and the pope pacified Lorenzo as well as he could. He was

  induced to both these measures rather by his apprehension of fresh

  troubles than by his love of peace, for he perceived dissensions

  arising between the Colonessi and the Orsini.

  In the war between the king of Naples and the pope, the former had

  taken the district of Tagliacozzo from the Orsini, and given it to the

  Colonnesi, who had espoused his cause. Upon the establishment of

  peace, the Orsini demanded its restoration by virtue of the treaty.

  The pope had frequently intimated to the Colonnesi that it ought to be

  restored; but they, instead of complying with the entreaties of the

  Orsini, or being influenced by the pope's threats, renewed hostilities

  against the former. Upon this the pontiff, unable to endure their

  insolence, united his own forces with those of the Orsini, plundered

  the houses they possessed in Rome, slew or made prisoners all who

  defended them, and seized most of their fortresses. So that when these

  troubles were composed, it was rather by the complete subjugation of

  one party than from any desire for peace in the other.

  Nor were the affairs of Genoa or of Tuscany in repose, for the

  Florentines kept the Count Antonio da Marciano on the borders of

  Serezana; and while the war continued in Lombardy, annoyed the people

  of Serezana by inroads and light skirmishes. Battistino Fregoso, doge

  of Genoa, trusting to Pagolo Fregoso, the archbishop, was taken

  prisoner, with his wife and children, by the latter, who assumed the

  sovereignty of the city. The Venetian fleet had attacked the kingdom

  of Naples, taken Gallipoli, and harassed the neighboring places. But

  upon the peace of Lombardy, all tumults were hushed except those of

  Tuscany and Rome; for the pope died in five days after its

  declaration, either in the natural course of things, or because his

  grief for peace, to which he was always opposed, occasioned his end.

  Upon the decease of the pontiff, Rome was immediately in arms. The

  Count Girolamo withdrew his forces into the castle; and the Orsini

  feared the Colonnesi would avenge the injuries they had recently

  sustained. The Colonnesi demanded the restitution of their houses and

  castles, so that in a few days robberies, fires, and murders prevailed

  in several parts of the city. The cardinals entreated the count to

  give the castle into the hands of the college, withdraw his troops,

  and deliver Rome from the fear of his forces, and he, by way of

  ingratiating himself with the future pontiff obeyed, and retired to

  Imola. The cardinals, being thus divested of their fears, and the

  barons hopeless of assistance in their quarrels, proceeded to create a

  new pontiff, and after some discussion, Giovanni Batista Cibo, a

  Genoese, cardinal of Malfetta, was elected, and took the name of

  Innocent VIII. By the mildness of his disposition (for he was

  peaceable and humane) he caused a cessation of hostilities, and for

  the present restored peace to Rome.

  The Florentines, after the pacification of Lombardy, could not remain

  quiet; for it appeared disgraceful that a private gentleman should

  deprive them of the fortress of Serezana; and as it was allowed by the

  conditions of peace, not only to demand lost places, but to make war

  upon any who should impede their restoration, they immediately

  provided men and money to undertake its recovery. Upon this, Agostino

  Fregoso, who had seized Serezana, being unable to defend it, gave the
/>   fortress to the Bank of St. Giorgio. As we shall have frequent

  occasion to speak of St. Giorgio and the Genoese, it will not be

  improper, since Genoa is one of the principal cities of Italy, to give

  some account of the regulations and usages prevailing there. When the

  Genoese had made peace with the Venetians, after the great war, many

  years ago, the republic, being unable to satisfy the claims of those

  who had advanced large sums of money for its use, conceded to them the

  revenue of the Dogano or customhouse, so that each creditor should

  participate in the receipts in proportion to his claim, until the

  whole amount should be liquidated, and as a suitable place for their

  assembling, the palace over the Dogano was assigned for their use.

  These creditors established a form of government among themselves,

  appointing a council of one hundred persons for the direction of their

  affairs, and a committee of eight, who, as the executive body, should

  carry into effect the determinations of the council. Their credits

  were divided into shares, called /Luoghi/, and they took the title of

  the Bank, or Company of St. Giorgio. Having thus arranged their

  government, the city fell into fresh difficulties, and applied to San

  Giorgio for assistance, which, being wealthy and well managed, was

  able to afford the required aid. On the other hand, as the city had at

  first conceded the customs, she next began to assign towns, castles,

  or territories, as security for moneys received; and this practice has

  proceeded to such a length, from the necessities of the state, and the

  accommodation by the San Giorgio, that the latter now has under its

  administration most of the towns and cities in the Genoese dominion.

  These the Bank governs and protects, and every year sends its

  deputies, appointed by vote, without any interference on the part of

  the republic. Hence the affections of the citizens are transferred

  from the government to the San Giorgio, on account of the tyranny of

  the former, and the excellent regulations adopted by the latter. Hence

  also originate the frequent changes of the republic, which is

  sometimes under a citizen, and at other times governed by a stranger;

  for the magistracy, and not the San Giorgio, changes the government.

  So when the Fregosi and the Adorni were in opposition, as the

  government of the republic was the prize for which they strove, the

  greater part of the citizens withdrew and left it to the victor. The

  only interference of the Bank of St. Giorgio is when one party has

  obtained a superiority over the other, to bind the victor to the

  observance of its laws, which up to this time have not been changed;

  for as it possesses arms, money, and influence, they could not be

  altered without incurring the imminent risk of a dangerous rebellion.

  This establishment presents an instance of what in all the republics,

  either described or imagined by philosophers, has never been thought

  of; exhibiting within the same community, and among the same citizens,

  liberty and tyranny, integrity and corruption, justice and injustice;

  for this establishment preserves in the city many ancient and

  venerable customs; and should it happen (as in time it easily may)

  that the San Giorgio should have possession of the whole city, the

  republic will become more distinguished than that of Venice.

  Agostino Fregoso conceded Serezana to the San Giorgio, which readily

  accepted it, undertook its defense, put a fleet to sea, and sent

  forces to Pietra Santa to prevent all attempts of the Florentines,

  whose camp was in the immediate vicinity. The Florentines found it

  would be essentially necessary to gain possession of Pietra Santa, for

  without it the acquisition of Serezana lost much of its value, being

  situated between the latter place and Pisa; but they could not,

  consistently with the treaty, besiege it, unless the people of Pietra

  Santa, or its garrison, were to impede their acquisition of Serezana.

  To induce the enemy to do this, the Florentines sent from Pisa to the

  camp a quantity of provisions and military stores, accompanied by a

  very weak escort; that the people of Pietra Santa might have little

  cause for fear, and by the richness of the booty be tempted to the

  attack. The plan succeeded according to their expectation; for the

  inhabitants of Pietra Santa, attracted by the rich prize took

  possession of it.

  This gave legitimate occasion to the Florentines to undertake

  operations against them; so leaving Serezana they encamped before

  Pietra Santa, which was very populous, and made a gallant defense. The

  Florentines planted their artillery in the plain, and formed a rampart

  upon the hill, that they might also attack the place on that side.

  Jacopo Guicciardini was commissary of the army; and while the siege of

  Pietra Santa was going on, the Genoese took and burned the fortress of

  Vada, and, landing their forces, plundered the surrounding country.

  Biongianni Gianfigliazzi was sent against them, with a body of horse

  and foot, and checked their audacity, so that they pursued their

  depredations less boldly. The fleet continuing its efforts went to

  Livorno, and by pontoons and other means approached the new tower,

  playing their artillery upon it for several days, but being unable to

  make any impression they withdrew.

  In the meantime the Florentines proceeded slowly against Pietra Santa,

  and the enemy taking courage attacked and took their works upon the

  hill. This was effected with so much glory, and struck such a panic

  into the Florentines, that they were almost ready to raise the siege,

  and actually retreated a distance of four miles; for their generals

  thought that they would retire to winter quarters, it being now

  October, and make no further attempt till the return of spring.

  When the discomfiture was known at Florence, the government was filled

  with indignation; and, to impart fresh vigor to the enterprise, and

  restore the reputation of their forces, they immediately appointed

  Antonio Pucci and Bernardo del Neri commissaries, who, with vast sums

  of money, proceeded to the army, and intimated the heavy displeasure

  of the Signory, and of the whole city, if they did not return to the

  walls; and what a disgrace, if so large an army and so many generals,

  having only a small garrison to contend with, could not conquer so

  poor and weak a place. They explained the immediate and future

  advantages that would result from the acquisition, and spoke so

  forcibly upon the subject, that all became anxious to renew the

  attack. They resolved, in the first place, to recover the rampart upon

  the hill; and here it was evident how greatly humanity, affability,

  and condescension influence the minds of soldiers; for Antonio Pucci,

  by encouraging one and promising another, shaking hands with this man

  and embracing that, induced them to proceed to the charge with such

  impetuosity, that they gained possession of the rampart in an instant.

  However, the victory was not unattended by misfortune, for Count

  Antonio da Marciano was killed by a can
non shot. This success filled

  the townspeople with so much terror, that they began to make proposals

  for capitulation; and to invest the surrender with imposing solemnity,

  Lorenzo de' Medici came to the camp, when, after a few days, the

  fortress was given up. It being now winter, the leaders of the

  expedition thought it unadvisable to make any further effort until the

  return of spring, more particularly because the autumnal air had been

  so unhealthy that numbers were affected by it. Antonio Pucci and

  Biongianni Gianfigliazzi were taken ill and died, to the great regret

  of all, so greatly had Antonio's conduct at Pietra Santa endeared him

  to the army.

  Upon the taking of Pietra Santa, the Lucchese sent ambassadors to

  Florence, to demand its surrender to their republic, on account of its

  having previously belonged to them, and because, as they alleged, it

  was in the conditions that places taken by either party were to be

  restored to their original possessors. The Florentines did not deny

  the articles, but replied that they did not know whether, by the

  treaty between themselves and the Genoese, which was then under

  discussion, it would have to be given up or not, and therefore could

  not reply to that point at present; but in case of its restitution, it

  would first be necessary for the Lucchese to reimburse them for the

  expenses they had incurred and the injury they had suffered, in the

  death of so many citizens; and that when this was satisfactorily

  arranged, they might entertain hopes of obtaining the place.

  The whole winter was consumed in negotiations between the Florentines

  and Genoese, which, by the pope's intervention, were carried on at

  Rome; but not being concluded upon the return of spring, the

  Florentines would have attacked Serezana had they not been prevented

  by the illness of Lorenzo de' Medici, and the war between the pope and

  King Ferrando; for Lorenzo was afflicted not only by the gout, which

  seemed hereditary in his family, but also by violent pains in the

  stomach, and was compelled to go the baths for relief.

  The more important reason was furnished by the war, of which this was

  the origin. The city of L'Aquila, though subject to the kingdom of

  Naples, was in a manner free; and the Count di Montorio possessed

  great influence over it. The duke of Calabria was upon the banks of

  the Tronto with his men-at-arms, under pretense of appeasing some

  disturbances among the peasantry; but really with a design of reducing

  L'Aquila entirely under the king's authority, and sent for the Count

  di Montorio, as if to consult him upon the business he pretended then

  to have in hand. The count obeyed without the least suspicion, and on

  his arrival was made prisoner by the duke and sent to Naples. When

  this circumstance became known at L'Aquila, the anger of the

  inhabitants arose to the highest pitch; taking arms they killed

  Antonio Cencinello, commissary for the king, and with him some

  inhabitants known partisans of his majesty. The L'Aquilani, in order

  to have a defender in their rebellion, raised the banner of the

  church, and sent envoys to the pope, to submit their city and

  themselves to him, beseeching that he would defend them as his own

  subjects against the tyranny of the king. The pontiff gladly undertook

  their defense, for he had both public and private reasons for hating

  that monarch; and Signor Roberto of San Severino, an enemy of the duke

  of Milan, being disengaged, was appointed to take the command of his

  forces, and sent for with all speed to Rome. He entreated the friends

  and relatives of the Count di Montorio to withdraw their allegiance

  from the king, and induced the princes of Altimura, Salerno, and

  Bisignano to take arms against him. The king, finding himself so

  suddenly involved in war, had recourse to the Florentines and the duke

  of Milan for assistance. The Florentines hesitated with regard to

  their own conduct, for they felt all the inconvenience of neglecting