History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy

by Niccolo Machiavelli

their own affairs to attend to those of others, and hostilities

  against the church seemed likely to involve much risk. However, being

  under the obligation of a League, they preferred their honor to

  convenience or security, engaged the Orsini, and sent all their own

  forces under the Count di Pitigliano toward Rome, to the assistance of

  the king. The latter divided his forces into two parts; one, under the

  duke of Calabria, he sent toward Rome, which, being joined by the

  Florentines, opposed the army of the church; with the other, under his

  own command, he attacked the barons, and the war was prosecuted with

  various success on both sides. At length, the king, being universally

  victorious, peace was concluded by the intervention of the ambassadors

  of the king of Spain, in August, 1486, to which the pope consented;

  for having found fortune opposed to him he was not disposed to tempt

  it further. In this treaty all the powers of Italy were united, except

  the Genoese, who were omitted as rebels against the republic of Milan,

  and unjust occupiers of territories belonging to the Florentines. Upon

  the peace being ratified, Roberto da San Severino, having been during

  the war a treacherous ally of the church, and by no means formidable

  to her enemies, left Rome; being followed by the forces of the duke

  and the Florentines, after passing Cesena, found them near him, and

  urging his flight reached Ravenna with less than a hundred horse. Of

  his forces, part were received into the duke's service, and part were

  plundered by the peasantry. The king, being reconciled with his

  barons, put to death Jacopo Coppola and Antonello d'Aversa and their

  sons, for having, during the war, betrayed his secrets to the pope.

  CHAPTER VII

  The pope becomes attached to the Florentines--The Genoese seize

  Serezanello--They are routed by the Florentines--Serezana

  surrenders--Genoa submits to the duke of Milan--War between the

  Venetians and the Dutch--Osimo revolts from the church--Count

  Girolamo Riario, lord of Furli, slain by a conspiracy--Galeotto,

  lord of Faenza, is murdered by the treachery of his wife--The

  government of the city offered to the Florentines--Disturbances in

  Sienna--Death of Lorenzo de' Medici--His eulogy--Establishment of

  his family--Estates bought by Lorenzo--His anxiety for the defense

  of Florence--His taste for arts and literature--The university of

  Pisa--The estimation of Lorenzo by other princes.

  The pope having observed in the course of the war, how promptly and

  earnestly the Florentines adhered to their alliances, although he had

  previously been opposed to them from his attachment to the Genoese,

  and the assistance they had rendered to the king, now evinced a more

  amicable disposition, and received their ambassadors with greater

  favor than previously. Lorenzo de' Medici, being made acquainted with

  this change of feeling, encouraged it with the utmost solicitude; for

  he thought it would be of great advantage, if to the friendship of the

  king he could add that of the pontiff. The pope had a son named

  Francesco, upon whom designing to bestow states and attach friends who

  might be useful to him after his own death, saw no safer connection in

  Italy than Lorenzo's, and therefore induced the latter to give him one

  of his daughters in marriage. Having formed this alliance, the pope

  desired the Genoese to concede Serezana to the Florentines, insisting

  that they had no right to detain what Agostino had sold, nor was

  Agostino justified in making over to the Bank of San Giorgio what was

  not his own. However, his holiness did not succeed with them; for the

  Genoese, during these transactions at Rome, armed several vessels,

  and, unknown to the Florentines, landed three thousand foot, attacked

  Serezanello, situated above Serezana, plundered and burnt the town

  near it, and then, directing their artillery against the fortress,

  fired upon it with their utmost energy. This assault was new and

  unexpected by the Florentines, who immediately assembled their forces

  under Virginio Orsino, at Pisa, and complained to the pope, that while

  he was endeavoring to establish peace, the Genoese had renewed their

  attack upon them. They then sent Piero Corsini to Lucca, that by his

  presence he might keep the city faithful; and Pagolantonio Soderini to

  Venice, to learn how that republic was disposed. They demanded

  assistance of the king and of Signor Lodovico, but obtained it from

  neither; for the king expressed apprehensions of the Turkish fleet,

  and Lodovico made excuses, but sent no aid. Thus the Florentines in

  their own wars are almost always obliged to stand alone, and find no

  friends to assist them with the same readiness they practice toward

  others. Nor did they, on this desertion of their allies (it being

  nothing new to them) give way to despondency; for having assembled a

  large army under Jacopo Guicciardini and Pietro Vettori, they sent it

  against the enemy, who had encamped upon the river Magra, at the same

  time pressing Serezanello with mines and every species of attack. The

  commissaries being resolved to relieve the place, an engagement

  ensued, when the Genoese were routed, and Lodovico dal Fiesco, with

  several other principal men, made prisoners. The Serezanesi were not

  so depressed at their defeat as to be willing to surrender, but

  obstinately prepared for their defense, while the Florentine

  commissaries proceeded with their operations, and instances of valor

  occurred on both sides. The siege being protracted by a variety of

  fortune, Lorenzo de' Medici resolved to go to the camp, and on his

  arrival the troops acquired fresh courage, while that of the enemy

  seemed to fail; for perceiving the obstinacy of the Florentines'

  attack, and the delay of the Genoese in coming to their relief, they

  surrendered to Lorenzo, without asking conditions, and none were

  treated with severity except two or three who were leaders of the

  rebellion. During the siege, Lodovico had sent troops to Pontremoli,

  as if with an intention of assisting the Florentines; but having

  secret correspondence in Genoa, a party was raised there, who, by the

  aid of these forces, gave the city to the duke of Milan.

  At this time the Dutch made war upon the Venetians, and Boccolino of

  Osimo, in the Marca, caused that place to revolt from the pope, and

  assumed the sovereignty. After a variety of fortune, he was induced to

  restore the city to the pontiff and come to Florence, where, under the

  protection of Lorenzo de' Medici, by whose advice he had been

  prevailed upon to submit, he lived long and respected. He afterward

  went to Milan, but did not experience such generous treatment; for

  Lodovico caused him to be put to death. The Venetians were routed by

  the Dutch, near the city of Trento, and Roberto da S. Severino, their

  captain, was slain. After this defeat, the Venetians, with their usual

  good fortune, made peace with the Dutch, not as vanquished, but as

  conquerors, so honorable were the terms they obtained.

  About this time, there arose serious troub
les in Romagna. Francesco

  d'Orso, of Furli, was a man of great authority in that city, and

  became suspected by the count Girolamo, who often threatened him. He

  consequently, living under great apprehensions, was advised by his

  friends to provide for his own safety, by the immediate adoption of

  such a course as would relieve him from all further fear of the count.

  Having considered the matter and resolved to attempt it, they fixed

  upon the market day, at Furli, as most suitable for their purpose; for

  many of their friends being sure to come from the country, they might

  make use of their services without having to bring them expressly for

  the occasion. It was the month of May, when most Italians take supper

  by daylight. The conspirators thought the most convenient hour would

  be after the count had finished his repast; for his household being

  then at their meal, he would remain in the chamber almost alone.

  Having fixed upon the hour, Francesco went to the count's residence,

  left his companions in the hall, proceeded to his apartment, and

  desired an attendant to say he wished for an interview. He was

  admitted, and after a few words of pretended communication, slew him,

  and calling to his associates, killed the attendant. The governor of

  the place coming by accident to speak with the count, and entering the

  apartment with a few of his people, was also slain. After this

  slaughter, and in the midst of a great tumult, the count's body was

  thrown from the window, and with the cry of "church and liberty," they

  roused the people (who hated the avarice and cruelty of the count) to

  arms, and having plundered his house, made the Countess Caterina and

  her children prisoners. The fortress alone had to be taken to bring

  the enterprise to a successful issue; but the Castellan would not

  consent to its surrender. They begged the countess would desire him to

  comply with their wish, which she promised to do, if they would allow

  her to go into the fortress, leaving her children as security for the

  performance of her promise. The conspirators trusted her, and

  permitted her to enter; but as soon as she was within, she threatened

  them with death and every kind of torture in revenge for the murder of

  her husband; and upon their menacing her with the death of her

  children, she said she had the means of getting more. Finding they

  were not supported by the pope, and that Lodovico Sforza, uncle to the

  countess, had sent forces to her assistance, the conspirators became

  terrified, and taking with them whatever property they could carry

  off, they fled to Citta di Castello. The countess recovered the state,

  and avenged the death of her husband with the utmost cruelty. The

  Florentines hearing of the count's death, took occasion to recover the

  fortress of Piancaldoli, of which he had formerly deprived them, and,

  on sending some forces, captured it; but Cecco, the famous engineer,

  lost his life during the siege.

  To this disturbance in Romagna, another in that province, no less

  important, has to be added. Galeotto, lord of Faenza, had married the

  daughter of Giovanni Bentivogli, prince of Bologna. She, either

  through jealousy or ill treatment by her husband, or from the

  depravity of her own nature, hated him to such a degree, that she

  determined to deprive him of his possessions and his life; and

  pretending sickness, she took to her bed, where, having induced

  Galeotto to visit her, he was slain by assassins, whom she had

  concealed for that purpose in the apartment. She had acquainted her

  father with her design, and he hoped, on his son-in-law's death, to

  become lord of Faenza. A great tumult arose as soon as the murder was

  known, the widow, with an infant son, fled into the fortress, the

  people took up arms, Giovanni Bentivogli, with a condottiere of the

  duke of Milan, named Bergamino, engaged for the occasion, entered

  Faenza with a considerable force, and Antonio Boscoli, the Florentine

  commissary, was also there. These leaders being together, and

  discoursing of the government of the place, the men of Val di Lamona,

  who had risen unanimously upon learning what had occurred, attacked

  Giovanni and Bergamino, the latter of whom they slew, made the former

  prisoner, and raising the cry of "Astorre and the Florentines,"

  offered the city to the commissary. These events being known at

  Florence, gave general offense; however, they set Giovanni and his

  daughter at liberty, and by the universal desire of the people, took

  the city and Astorre under their protection. Besides these, after the

  principal differences of the greater powers were composed, during

  several years tumults prevailed in Romagna, the Marca, and Sienna,

  which, as they are unimportant, it will be needless to recount. When

  the duke of Calabria, after the war of 1478, had left the country, the

  distractions of Sienna became more frequent, and after many changes,

  in which, first the plebeians, and then the nobility, were victorious,

  the latter and length maintained the superiority, and among them

  Pandolfo and Jacopo Petrucci obtained the greatest influence, so that

  the former being distinguished for prudence and the latter for

  resolution, they became almost princes in the city.

  The Florentines after the war of Serezana, lived in great prosperity

  until 1492, when Lorenzo de' Medici died; for he having put a stop to

  the internal wars of Italy, and by his wisdom and authority

  established peace, turned his thoughts to the advancement of his own

  and the city's interests, and married Piero, his eldest son, to

  Alfonsina, daughter of the Cavaliere Orsino. He caused Giovanni, his

  second son, to be raised to the dignity of cardinal. This was the more

  remarkable from its being unprecedented; for he was only fourteen

  years of age when admitted to the college; and became the medium by

  which his family attained to the highest earthly glory. He was unable

  to make any particular provision for Guiliano, his third son, on

  account of his tender years, and the shortness of his own life. Of his

  daughters, one married Jacopo Salviati; another, Francesco Cibo; the

  third, Piero Ridolfi; and the fourth, whom, in order to keep his house

  united, he had married to Giovanni de' Medici, died. In his commercial

  affairs he was very unfortunate, from the improper conduct of his

  agents, who in all their proceedings assumed the deportment of princes

  rather than of private persons; so that in many places, much of his

  property was wasted, and he had to be relieved by his country with

  large sums of money. To avoid similar inconvenience, he withdrew from

  mercantile pursuits, and invested his property in land and houses, as

  being less liable to vicissitude. In the districts of Prato, Pisa, and

  the Val di Pesa, he purchased extensively, and erected buildings,

  which for magnificence and utility, were quite of regal character. He

  next undertook the improvement of the city, and as many parts were

  unoccupied by buildings, he caused new streets to be erected in them,

  of great beauty, and thus enlarged the accommodation of
the

  inhabitants. To enjoy his power in security and repose, and conquer or

  resist his enemies at a distance, in the direction of Bologna he

  fortified the castle of Firenzuola, situated in the midst of the

  Appennines; toward Sienna he commenced the restoration and

  fortification of the Poggio Imperiale; and he shut out the enemy in

  the direction of Genoa, by the acquisition of Pietra Santa and

  Serezana. For the greater safety of the city, he kept in pay the

  Baglioni, at Perugia, and the Vitelli, at Citta di Castello, and held

  the government of Faenza wholly in his own power; all which greatly

  contributed to the repose and prosperity of Florence. In peaceful

  times, he frequently entertained the people with feasts, and

  exhibitions of various events and triumphs of antiquity; his object

  being to keep the city abundantly supplied, the people united, and the

  nobility honored. He was a great admirer of excellence in the arts,

  and a patron of literary men, of which Agnolo da Montepulciano,

  Cristofero Landini, and Demetrius Chalcondylas, a Greek, may afford

  sufficient proofs. On this account, Count Giovanni della Mirandola, a

  man of almost supernatural genius, after visiting every court of

  Europe, induced by the munificence of Lorenzo, established his abode

  at Florence. He took great delight in architecture, music, and poetry,

  many of his comments and poetical compositions still remaining. To

  facilitate the study of literature to the youth of Florence, he opened

  a university at Pisa, which was conducted by the most distinguished

  men in Italy. For Mariano da Chinazano, a friar of the order of St.

  Augustine, and an excellent preacher, he built a monastery in the

  neighborhood of Florence. He enjoyed much favor both from fortune and

  from the Almighty; all his enterprises were brought to a prosperous

  termination, while his enemies were unfortunate; for, besides the

  conspiracy of the Pazzi, an attempt was made to murder him in the

  Carmine, by Batista Frescobaldi, and a similar one by Baldinetto da

  Pistoja, at his villa; but these persons, with their confederates,

  came to the end their crimes deserved. His skill, prudence, and

  fortune, were acknowledged with admiration, not only by the princes of

  Italy, but by those of distant countries; for Matthias, king of

  Hungary, gave him many proofs of his regard; the sultan sent

  ambassadors to him with valuable presents, and the Turkish emperor

  placed in his hands Bernardo Bandini, the murderer of his brother.

  These circumstances raised his fame throughout Italy, and his

  reputation for prudence constantly increased; for in council he was

  eloquent and acute, wise in determination, and prompt and resolute in

  execution. Nor can vices be alleged against him to sully so many

  virtues; though he was fond of women, pleased with the company of

  facetious and satirical men, and amused with the games of the nursery,

  more than seemed consistent with so great a character; for he was

  frequently seen playing with his children, and partaking of their

  infantine sports; so that whoever considers this gravity and

  cheerfulness, will find united in him dispositions which seem almost

  incompatible with each other. In his later years, he was greatly

  afflicted; besides the gout, he was troubled with excruciating pains

  in the stomach, of which he died in April, 1492, in the forty-fourth

  year of his age; nor was there ever in Florence, or even in Italy, one

  so celebrated for wisdom, or for whose loss such universal regret was

  felt. As from his death the greatest devastation would shortly ensue,

  the heavens gave many evident tokens of its approach; among other

  signs, the highest pinnacle of the church of Santa Reparata was struck

  with lightning, and great part of it thrown down, to the terror and

  amazement of everyone. The citizens and all the princes of Italy

  mourned for him, and sent their ambassadors to Florence, to condole

  with the city on the occasion; and the justness of their grief was

  shortly after apparent; for being deprived of his counsel, his